Special  Method 
IN  Science 


K^X^ 


m  MEJAOmAIA 
O.G.Van  Liew 


SPECIAL   METHGD 

,...IN.... 

n/\tiJral  science 

rOR  THE 

FIRST    FOUR   GRADES 

or  THE 

CO/nA\OH    SCHOOL. 


THIRD        EDIXION 


...BY... 

Charles  A.  McMurry.  Ph.D. 

AND 

Mrs.  Lida  b.  McMurry. 


PUBLISHliD  BT 
PlJBLIC-SCHOOL  POBLISHINO  COMPANY 
BLOOMINGTON,  ILLINOIS. 


3£ 


Copyriglit,  1896,  1899. 
BY  Charles  A.  McMurry 

NORMAL,    ILL. 


Printed  and  Bound  by 

Pantagraph  Printing  and  Stationery  Co. 

Bloomington,  111. 


CtC 


PRCPACC. 


'HIS  is  the  fourth  of  a  series  of  Special  Methods 
in  the  common  school  studies,  and  isdesi.irned 
to  be  a  direct  help  to  teachers  in  recitation 
work.  The  plan  is  to  give  a  broad  view  of  the  pro- 
blem of  science  teaching-  by  a  brief  historical  and 
critical  survey  of  science  teaching,  and  of  the  ideas 
thus  far  developed  in  schools. 

One  of  the  great  difficulties  is  to  find  some  basis 
for  selecting  and  arranging  the  most  important  and 
suitable  topics  for  a  course  of  study  when  the  field 
of  science  furnishes  such  a  vast  and  varied  collec- 
tion of  materials. 

The  method  of  treating  science  tojiics  in  these 
grades  is  treated  at  some  length. 

Although  natural  science  instruction  is  funda- 
mentally based  upon  direct  observation,  the  best 
books  are  found  extremely  helpful  to  teachers.  A 
list  of  about  a  hundred  and  fifty  books,  somewhat 
carefully  selected  and  classified,  is  presented  for 
the  help  of  teachers,  and  the  publishers  are  named 
with  addresses. 

A  large  number  of  topics  for  first  and  second 
grade,  worked  out  and  used  by  Mrs.  Lida  B.  Mc- 
Murry  in  primary  classes,  is  given  in  the  full  treat- 

5^.^237 


4  Preface. 

The  plan  for  third  and  fourth  grades  has  been 
worlred'  Qut  ahd  more  fully  illustrated  by  examples 
in  this  second  edition  of  the  book. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  the  author  to  wotk  out  in  a 
separate  volume  a  course  of  study  in  Natural  Science 
for  the  last  four  grades  of  the  common  school  (5th 
to  8th  grade  inclusive). 

The  other  works  of  this  series  are: 

Special  Method  in  Literature  and  Histoyn/,  espe- 
cially the  oral  treatment  of  stories  in  primary  and 
intermediate  grades.  The  history  course  for  gram- 
mar grades  is  also  discussed  and  outlined. 

Special  Method  in  Reading,  a  discussion  of  the 
quality,  culture- value,  and  method  of  using  the  best 
classics  as  reading  exercises.  A  full  list  of  one  hun- 
dred and  forty-six  choice  books,  arranged  according 
to  grades,  is  given. 

Special  Method  in  Geography,  a  plan  of  geogra- 
phy lessons  for  third  and  fourth  grades.  It  deals 
with  the  selection  and  method  of  important  types. 
The  material  for  thirteen  of  these  type  studies  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley  is  given  in  full. 

Charles  A.  McMurry, 

Normal,  Illinois. 
State  Normal  University, 

September  30,  liG8. 


INDEX. 

Introductor}'  Discussion 7 

General  Purposes       .        . 13 

History  of  Science  Teaching 15 

The  Leading-  Aim 25 

A  Road  to  the  Aim 30 

Method 50 

Books  as  an  Aid  to  Science  Teaching        ...  66 
Outline  of  Topics — 

First  Grade 79 

Second  Grade 82 

Books  for  Reference 83 

Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades — 

The  Shepherd  Dog 85 

Autumn  Leaves  and  Buds 94 

The  Cow 97 

The  Sheep 104 

The  Rabbit Ill 

The  Horse 118 

The  Chicken 127 

The  Robin 142 

The  Red-headed  Woodpecker       ....  150 

The  Cabbage  Butterfly 158 

Caterpillars 161 

The  Common  Blue  Violet 165 

The  Morning  Glory 174 

The  Austrian  Pine 180 

The  Scotch  Pine 190 

The  Common  Crow 193 

The  Screech  Owl 197 

The  Wild  Rose 203 

A  Winter  Study  of  the  Fox  Squirrel    ...  207 
The  First  Three  Months  in  the  Life  of  a  Gray 

Squirrel 211 

Our  Moune,  Jim 218 

Outline  of  Course  of  Study  for  Third  and  Fourth 

Grades 223 


INTRODUCTORY   DISCUSSION. 


OR  AT  least  three  centuries  there  has  been 
abundant  discourse  among-  writers  on  edu- 
cation in  favor  of  natural  science  study  in 
the  schools.  Educational  reformers  like  Comenius, 
Rousseau,  and  Colonel  Parker  have  laid  great 
stress  upon  the  educative  value  in  childhood  and 
youth  of  the  contact  between  mind  and  matter  in 
the  forms  which  nature  presents.  School  educa- 
tion has  always  been  too  bookish,  too  much  sepa- 
rated from  objects  and  realities  of  experience. 

Comenius  found  education  in  his  day  mired  in 
Latin  forms,  technicalities,  and  abstractions.  It 
was  a  killing-  process  to  try  to  aw^aken  childlike 
interests  and  mind  action  upon  the  dead  rules  and 
inflections  of  a  purely  formal  grammar.  By  means 
of  his  Orbis  Pictus  and  other  books  of  method  he 
tried  to  infuse  some  degree  of  interest  and  meaning 
into  the  lifeless  drills  of  the  schools.  But  it  was 
an  almost  hopeless  task  so  long  as  Latin  remained, 
like  a  vast  breastwork  of  obstruction,  at  the  very 
doorway  of  education.  It  was  impossible  to  estab- 
lish a  rational  system  of  popular  education  so 
lonf^  as  a  dead  languag-e  stretched  its  lifeless 
body  across  the  threshold  of  school  life,  barring 


8  Special  Method  in  Science. 

enivsihte  to  ib^  .fields  Elysiati.  But  thanks  to  the 
power  and  vig"or  of  our  native  tong^ue,  it  has  taken 
at  last  the  supreme  place  among"  languag-es  in  a 
child's  education,  and  when  he  first  enters  school 
he  is  in  possession  of  this  treasure.  The  same 
thing  has  happened  in  Prance  and  Germany  and 
in  other  European  countries. 

The  vernacular  has  become  the  fundamental 
medium  of  thought.  One  of  the  enormities,  there- 
fore, that  vexed  the  souls  of  children  two  or  three 
hundred  years  ago  has  been  swept  away.  But 
the  linguistic  and  verbal  spirit  of  the  old  regime 
is  still  with  us,  and  many  teachers  still  think  chil- 
dren have  the  ideas  when  they  have  only  conned 
the  forms  in  which  ideas  are  expressed.  In  the 
days  of  Latin  supremacy,  Comenius  and  the  other 
reformers  tried  to  save  instruction  from  empty 
verbalism  by  associating  the  objects  in  nature 
with  the  Latin  names,  and  we  have  been  trying, 
for  more  than  one  generation,  by  means  of  object 
lessons  and  nature  studies,  to  redeem  education 
from  the  dry  rot  of  verbal  memorizing.  But  in  our 
day  we  have  already  got  beyond  the  idea  that 
natural  science  is  simply  an  auxiliary,  a  means  of 
making  language  and  other  studies  more  signifi- 
cant and  real.  Nature  study  stands  out  in  its  own 
right,  an  equal  among  such  studies  as  reading, 
mathematics,  and  language. 

It  is  a  matter  of  no  little  surprise  with  many 
that  nature  study  has  made  so  small  progress  in 


Introductory  Discussion.  9 

the  common  schools.  For  three  centuries  in  Eu- 
rope and  America  there  has  been  constant  advo- 
cacy and  boundless  faith  and  enthusiasm  in  nature 
studies  for  children,  but  the  output  in  the  schools 
is  close  up  to  nothing".  Yet  a  fuller  appreciation 
of  the  inherent  difficulties  involved  in  a  deep  edu- 
cational problem  like  this  shows  that  centuries 
rather  than  years  are  required  in  working-out  such 
a  problem.  It  may  be  truly  said  that  a  rig"ht  se- 
lection of  topics  and  a  rig-ht  teaching"  of  natural 
science  w^ould  produce  a  marked  change  in  the 
teaching"  of  all  subjects  in  the  common  school. 
The  method  of  realism  in  science  subjects  is  a 
good  criterion  of  method  in  all  studies.  A  proper 
attitude  of  a  teacher  in  handling"  science  topics  in 
a  class  is  a  direct  protest  against  the  major  part 
of  the  work  in  all  studies  now  done  in  our  schools. 
We  talk  about  science  teaching,  realism,  sense 
training,  experimental  work,  investigation,  field 
work,  etc.,  and  still  we  hug  our  books  as  tightly 
as  before.  If  we  were  dropped  into  a  school  of 
eighty  children  without  books  or  paper,  as  was 
Pestalozzi  at  Stanz,  we  might  be  helpless.  True 
science  teaching  is  the  direct  realism  of  education. 
In  nearly  all  other  studies  we  can  get  along  with 
books  and  deceive  ourselves,  more  or  less,  with 
words.  But  in  introducing  children  to  nature 
studies  the  absurdity  of  using  books  is  more  ap 
parent  than  in  other  branches  of  learning.  In 
natural  science,  therefore,  more  than  in  any  other 


10  Special  Method  in  Science. 

study,  we  are  forced  to  find  the  true  method  of 
object  study.  We  are  dealing"  with  those  objects 
and  phenomena  which  stimulate  the  mind  to  its 
fundamental  activities  and  supply  it  with  elemen- 
tary material  of  thought.  Nature  study  furnishes 
the  constructive  materials  and  illustrations  out  of 
which  other  studies  explain  and  make  real  their 
notions.  In  its  own  right,  nature  study  is  the 
direct  acquaintance-making  and  examination  of 
these  objects  at  first  hand.  It  is,  therefore,  the 
true  parent  of  all  realism  in  studies  (realism  used 
in  the  sense  of  object-study).  In  contrast  to  this 
we  see  an  oppressive  verbalism  still  prevailing  in 
the  schools,  and  the  heaving  of  general  notions  to 
the  front  in  most  text  books  and  recitations.  The 
movement  from  particular  to  general,  from  per- 
cept to  concept  (general  notion)  is  not  yet  recog- 
nized as  the  primary  law  of  learning.  It  is  strange 
that  nature  study  with  its  objective  realism  is  not 
yet  come  into  possession  of  its  rightful  patrimony? 
Nature  study,  more  perhaps  than  any  other  branch 
of  learning,  advertises  the  foolishness  of  forcing 
upon  a  child  the  general  notions,  the  principles,, 
before  the  illustrative  materials  have  been  pre- 
sented to  his  mind. 

The  world  of  nature  is  the  chosen  domain  of  a 
child's  operations;  it  is  the  field  of  his  enterprise, 
of  his  efforts  at  self  expression.  Nature  holds  out 
objective  inducements  and  pleasures  and  invites 
him  to  varied  effort.     Even  if  the  stimulus  comes 


Introductory  Biscussi07i.  11 

from  literature,  as  from  myth  or  historical  story, 
the  place  for  actualizing"  his  ideas  is  in  his  phys- 
ical environment.  Robinson  Crusoe,  for  example, 
is  the  starter  for  his  making"  a  variety  of  experi- 
ments and  investigations  upon  the  dogs,  parrots, 
g"rain  fields,  clay,  and  other  animate  and  inani- 
mate objects  in  his  own  physical  surrounding"s. 
This  is  the  way  in  which  all  historical  and  liter- 
ary works  should  be  studied  in  the  schools,  with 
feet  upon  the  ground  though  the  eyes  be  turned 
to  the  stars. 

We  may  find,  therefore,  that  the  effort  to  dis- 
cover the  best  materials  and  methods  of  science 
teaching"  w^ill  bring"  us  face  to  face  with  the 
broader  and  deeper  problems  of  the  school  course. 
Science  teaching"  has  a  direct  word  of  warning"  and 
of  helpfulness  to,  all  the  other  studies.  It  speaks 
also  to  the  heart  of  a  child  as  well  as  to  his  senses 
in  all  his  earlier  years.  Its  place,  therefore,  in 
the  child's  life  and  in  the  school  curriculum  is  one 
of  no  mean  or  secondary  rank. 

Nature  study  includes  the  whole  broad  terri- 
tory of  the  physical  universe.  In  order  to  make 
the  notion  explicit,  we  speak  analytically  of  the 
natural  sciences,  botany,  g'eolog"y,  zoolog"y,  phys- 
ics, chemistry,  physical  g"eog"raphy,  astronomy, 
meteorology,  physiology.  But  this  list  is  simply 
explanatory  to  older  people.  Prom  the  stand- 
point of  pedagogy,  nature  study  is  not  a  collection 
of  sciences,  nor  a  scientific  unity  of  all  sciences  in 


12  Special  Method  m  Science. 

one,  but  a  practical  grasp  of  the  whole  physical 
world  around  us  as  a  set  of  conditions  environing" 
a  child.  The  best  way  to  look  at  nature  is  as  a 
body  of  educative  materials,  pressing  upon  the 
children  from  all  sides,  calling  out  their  activi- 
ties, and  impressively  iterating  the  simplest  real 
lessons.  There  are  two  phases  of  artificiality  in 
science  teaching  which  we  wish  to  avoid  in  the 
early  w^ork  with  children,  though  both  are  indis- 
pensable as  we  advance  into  higher  grades.  One 
is  the  notion  of  scientific  classification,  which  to 
mature  minds  is  identical  with  any  notion  of  sci- 
ence; and  the  other,  the  use  of  books  in  science 
studies.  Nature,  as  she  thrusts  herself  upon  the 
attention  of  children,  is  neither  classified  nor 
bookish.  Nature  shows  herself  as  an  interesting 
collection  of  physical  realities,  and  it  is  only  little 
by  little  that  children  discover  and  recognize  the 
threads  of  system  running  through  these  objects 
and  activities,  and  still  later  that  books  appear 
at  all  helpful  in  getting  at  the  explanation  of 
things. 


General  Purposes.  13 


GENERAL   PURPOSES. 


P  WE  inquire  amongf  thoughtful  instructors  in 
J|    science  what  the  purpose  of  this  study  is,  we 
shall  get  a  variety  of  answers,  somewhat  as 
follows: 

The  traininfif  of  children  to  observe  closely  and 
accurately  so  as  to  form* habits  of  scrutiny.  This 
includes  the  sharpening"  of  the  senses  to  acuteness 
and  vig"or.  It  includes,  also,  the  storag-e  of  ele- 
mentary percepts  of  strictly  experimental  type. 
We  deal  with  those  objects  and  phenomena  which 
stimulate  the  mind  to  its  fundamental  activities 
and  supply  it  with  the  elementary  materials  of 
thought.  Nature  study  leads  also  to  thoughtful- 
ness  and  the  exercise  of  reason  upon  the  materials 
presented.  It  arouses  and  feeds  the  spirit  of  in- 
quisitiveness  and  investigation.  It  not  only  awak 
ens  an  interest  in  the  causal  relations  of  nature's 
work,  but  teaches  respect  for  the  law-abiding 
quality  and  truthfulness  in  nature,  as  grounded 
in  the  realism  of  experimental  knowledge.  Na- 
ture study  is  also  directly  useful  for  its  deepening 
and  extension  of  practical  knowledge,  as  in  the 
lessons  of  health,  temperance,  and  sanitation. 
It  reveals  the  utilities  of    natural  products  and 


14  Special  Method  in  Science. 

the  inventions  and  processes  of  man's  ingenuity 
as  embodied  in  telescopes,  microscopes,  steam  en- 
gines, medicines,  ventilation,  photography,  mir- 
rors, the  compass,  pumps,  etc.  Without  a  real 
knowledge  of  these  things,  children  and  grown 
people  cannot  adapt  themselves  to  the  physical 
conditions  and  necessities  which  their  own  bodies 
and  the  objective  world  around  them  impose. 

Nature  study  leads  up  gradually  to  a  grasp  of 
scientific  classifications,  of  the  systematic  order 
and  law  that  prevail  in  the  world;  in  short,  ulti- 
mately, to  a  perception  of  the  plan  and  wisdom 
that  pervade  nature.  Here  we  are  upon  the  thres- 
hold of  religion.  The  esthetic  interests  and  tastes 
cultivated  by  nature  study,  the  perception  of 
beauty  and  grandeur  and  harmony,  are  among  the 
strongest  educative  influences  of  science  study. 
Some  even  claim  that  nature  is  essentially  moral 
in  its  teaching,  and  we  may  all  agree,  at  least, 
that  indirectly  many  moral  qualities  are  strength- 
ened by  a  wise  method  of  science  study. 


History  of  Science  Teaching.  15 


HISTORY  or  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


ra)Y  AN"  inquiry  into  the  history  and  present 
status  of  nature  study  in  the  grades  we 
shall  find  that  all  these  ideas  have  their 
influence  with  teachers,  one  person  laying  stress 
upon  one  phase  of  science  training,  another  upon 
some  other.  Not  only  so,  but  there  has  been  a 
decided  evolution  and  progress  in  ideas  of  method 
in  connection  with  science  instruction  in  the 
grades. 

One  of  the  advantages  belonging  to  the  study 
of  European  schools  is  the  opportunity  to  trace 
the  development  of  method  in  particular  studies 
as  well  as  in  the  school  course  as  a  whole.  The 
schools  of  Germany,  for  example,  have  a  much 
longer  and  more  gradual  development  under 
trained,  even  expert,  instructors  than  ours.  For 
more  than  a  hundred  years  they  have  been  work- 
ing steadily  at  the  problem  of  science  teaching  in 
the  common  school,  and,  having  passed  through 
a  series  of  progressive  stages,  have  worked  their 
way  forward  to  a  position  commanding  a  liberal 
and  practical  view  of  the  whole  subject.  From 
the  rich  experience  of  others  we  might  learn  a 
valuable  lesson  but  for  our  lack  of  confidence  in 


16  Special  Method  in  Science. 

the  plodding  Germans,  as  we  sometimes  call  them, 
and  had  we  not  such  abounding  confidence  in  our 
own  ability  to  solve  the  most  perplexing  problems 
at  short  notice.  But  great  educational  problems 
are  not  solved  in  a  day — not  even  by  Americans. 
Sometimes  even  centuries  seem  to  pass  by  without 
clearly  marked  progress.  At  any  rate  it  is  toler- 
ably certain  that  a  number  of  years  must  elapse 
before  a  satisfactory  course  in  nature  lessons  for 
the  grades  can  be  fully  worked  out  and  put  in 
practice. 

The  following  brief  historical  view  of  the  suc- 
cessive ideas  that  have  influenced  science  teach, 
ing  is  suggested  by  Dr.  W.  Rein's  discussion  of 
natural  science  in  the  fourth  school  year  (Das 
vierte  Schuljahr). 

In  taking  up  nature  study  in  the  common 
schools,  the  first  idea  to  make  itself  practically 
operative  with  teachers  and  book-makers  was 
the  notion  of  the  wonderful.  Curious  or  remark- 
able plants  or  animals  were  talked  of  or  read 
about.  Teachers  presented  children  with  some- 
thing marvelous  or  prodigious  in  nature  to  excite 
their  curiosity.  Things  even  freakish  or  outland- 
ish were  called  in  to  satisfy  this  thirst  for  the 
marvelous.  Quite  a  number  of  the  elementary 
science  books  now  in  use  in  our  schools  are  mainly 
devoted  to  a  description  of  such  curiosities  in 
nature  as  the  big  trees  of  California,  Mammoth 
Cave,  the  ant-eater,  an  elephant  hunt,  the  duck- 


History  of  Science  Teaching.  17 

bill  of  Australia,  an  iceberg-,  a  geyser.  This  prim- 
itive impulse  to  feast  on  foreign  wonders  and 
curiosities  is  directly  contrary  to  two  of  the  most 
important  requirements  of  good  science  study, 
first,  that  the  objects  studied  be  taken  from  the 
home  neighborhood,  as  the  house-cat,  the  dan- 
delion, the  maple  tree,  the  butterfly,  and  other 
objects  already  familiar  to  the  observation  and  ex- 
perience of  children;  and  second,  children  should 
learn  to  see  wonders  in  the  commonest  objects, 
instead  of  going  to  the  world's  end  to  find  strange 
things.  Such  study  of  foreign  wonders  can  only 
be  made  through  books,  pictures,  and  verbal 
descriptions,  while  true  science  teaching  throws 
books  aside  and  shows  children  how  to  look  na- 
ture directly  in  the  face.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that 
this  first  impulse  to  seek  extraordinary  and  freak- 
ish things  in  nature  is  the  exact  opposite  of  the 
true  method  of  nature  study.  The  whole  tendency 
of  this  perversion  of  method  is  to  put  our  trust 
In  books  rather  than  in  our  own  powers  of  obser- 
vation, and  to  cause  children  to  disregard  the 
marvelous  things  all  about  them  in  nature,  and  to 
chase  the  world  over  on  imaginary  journeys  in 
the  search  for  curiosities.  The  tendency  of  this 
perversion  of  nature  study  is  to  teach  dependence 
upon  books  and  hearsay,  and  even  upon  what  is 
mythical,  instead  of  personal  observation  and 
direct  experience.  It  turns  the  mind  away  from 
surrounding  realities  toward  distant  uncertain- 


18  Special  Method  in  Science. 

ties.  Yet  the  impulse  to  find  out  the  wonderful 
in  nature  is  legitimate  and  inspiring",  and  is  one  of 
the  strongest  motives  in  nature  study.  Only  let  it 
begin  at  home  with  familiar  objects,  and  rest  upon 
the  undoubted  realities  and  wonders  which  every 
child  can  find  for  himself  at  his  own  doorway. 

The  second  idea  which  early  showed  itself  in 
science  studies  was  the  doctrine  of  utility,  the 
practical  value  and  information  contained  in  this 
study  for  the  average  man  or  child.  It  is  certainly 
worth  while  to  know  the  useful  and  hurtful  things 
in  nature.  The  study  of  plants  and  trees  brings 
out  medicinal  or  poisonous  qualities.  Some  ani- 
mals and  plants  are  of  daily  use  to  men  for  food 
or  clothing  or  shelter.  Some  of  the  simpler  les- 
sons of  physics,  chemistry,  and  physiology  have 
\o  do  with  comfort  and  health,  while  the  common 
inventions  and  machines  in  general  use  in  our 
homes,  fields,  and  factories  need  to  be  explained 
in  science  lessons.  This  notion  of  the  utility  of 
science  studies  has  a  wide  range  of  meanings, 
from  the  low  mercenary  motive  of  personal  gain, 
up  through  all  the  steps  of  practical  benefit  to 
the  highest  utilities  which  nature  has  to  offer  in 
her  service  to  man.  One  of  the  most  striking 
characteristics  of  the  physical  world  in  which  we 
live  is  the  multiplex  utility  of  natural  science  in 
the  affairs  of  all  classes  of  people  in  all  their  daily 
concerns.  So  far  as  there  is  progress  in  the  world, 
men  are  everywhere  seeking  to  understand  and  to 


History  of  Science  Teaching.  19 

utilize  nature,  and  it  is  one  of  the  great  problems 
of  education  to  prepare  children  for  real  life  by 
securing"  to  them  such  an  understanding  and  mas- 
tery of  the  physical  conditions  of  life  and  of  the 
many  and  varied  utilities  in  nature.  In  the  early 
history  of  science  teaching,  however,  the  utility 
of  nature  study  was  thought  of  in  a  narrow  and 
illiberal  sense.  The  poisonous  and  useful  plants 
and  animals  marked  the  limit  of  the  study. 

In  the  third  place  a  more  significant  and  fruit- 
ful notion  of  science  came  to  notice  when  teach- 
ers asked  the  question.  What  mental  discipline  is 
supplied  by  these  studies?  Rising  above  the  bare 
question  of  utility,  teachers  inquired  what  mental 
habits  and  tendencies  science  studies  fostered. 
Most  science  teachers  today  lay  the  chief  stress 
upon  the  mental  discipline  afforded  by  science, 
that  is,  the  training  of  the  observing  powers  of 
children,  the  quickening  of  the  sense  perceptions, 
learning  to  see  and  hear  and  take  more  accurate 
note  of  the  things  seen  and  heard,  the  habits 
formed  of  observing,  comparing,  and  tracing  rela- 
tions, the  respect  for  law  and  order  and  truthful- 
ness impressed  by  such  realities.  All  these  are 
doubly  emphasized  by  science  teachers  of  our  day. 
Perhaps  no  other  idea  has  been  so  much  exalted 
by  science  teachers  as  this  peculiar  mental  disci- 
pline which,  it  is  claimed,  is  not  furnished  by  other 
studies.  Stated  in  the  above  form  this  aim  is 
comprehensive  and  stimulating,  but  when  reduced 


20  Special  Method  in  Science. 

to  the  practice  of  the  schools  it  runs  into  serious 
error  and  difficulty.  The  test  for  all  such  drill 
exercises,  which  aim  at  discipline  and  habit  of 
observation  is  the  power  to  describe  the  objects  seen 
and  compared  and  description  becomes  a  mania. 
In  order  to  carry  this  observation  drill  into  school 
a  variety  of  natural  objects  is  examined  and  de- 
scribed as  to  form  and  appearance,  color,  quality, 
and  materials.  Trees,  plants,  and  flowers,  birds 
and  insects,  crystals  and  minerals  are  drawn  into 
this  descriptive  process  which  easily  deg"enerates 
into  a  smooth  rut.  Every  tree  is  analyzed  into 
roots,  stem,  and  leaves,  every  flower  into  calyx, 
corolla,  stamens,  and  pistils,  every  leaf  into  ribs, 
veins,  and  margins,  etc.,  through  all  the  round  of 
nature  objects.  Such  descriptive  work  may  easily 
grow  into  a  barren  detail  of  external  form  and 
feature.  The  spirit  of  science  teaching  drops  out 
and  only  the  empty  form  of  discipline  remains. 

A  special  advantage  reputed  to  spring  from  this 
descriptive  drill  is  language  training.  But  science 
is  too  important  to  be  made  simply  a  handmaid 
of  language  exercises.  In  fact  if  lessons  fail  as 
science  lessons  they  will  doubly  fail  as  language. 
Training  children,  therefore,  to  observe  and  de- 
scribe, is  not  the  leading  aim  of  science  study.  Its 
tendency  is  so  strong  in  the  direction  of  formalism 
and  superficial  study  of  objects  that  it  soon  loses 
all  power  to  stimulate  effort.  It  does  not  lay  hold 
of  the  deeper  impulses,  the  wide  awake  interest 


History  of  Science  Teaching.  21 

and  strong-er  effort  of  children  to  trace  out  causal 
relations,  to  discover  the  hidden  law,  to  explain, 
for  example,  the  construction  and  use  of  different 
org"ans  in  plants  and  animals.  In  spite  of  the  em- 
phasis placed  by  the  scientists  themselves  upon 
this  disciplinary  value  of  studies,  in  spite  of  the 
strong  necessity  for  right  habits  of  observation, 
the  mere  discipline  derived  can  not  be  regarded 
as  the  controlling  aim  of  these  studies.  The  real 
purpose  of  science  teaching-  in  its  higher  influence 
is  not  bare  mental  discipline  but  the  permanent 
awakening  of  the  whole  mind  and  spirit  of  the 
child.  Discipline,  therefore,  is  one  of  the  second- 
ary or  incidental  aims  of  science  instruction. 

In  the  progress  of  science  teaching  in  the 
schools  a  fourth  and  more  comprehensive  aim  has 
been  set  up  and  pat  into  practice.  It  is  the  idea 
of  scientific  order  and  classification,  the  reduction 
of  all  the  varied  objects  and  phenomena  of  nature 
to  an  accurate  system  of  classes  and  sub-classes, 
of  gfeneral  and  special  laws.  It  is  an  effort  to  get 
the  mastery  of  nature  by  reducing  its  endless 
variety  of  forms  and  phenomena  to  system  and 
law.  Dr.  Rein  says:  "In  the  latter  half  of  the 
last  century  lived  the  great  founder  or  reformer 
of  systematic  natural  science,  Karl  von  Linnaeus. 
His  influence  reached  far  into  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury and  was  universal.  Goethe  himself  affirms 
that  next  to  Shakespeare  and  Spinoza,  Linnaeus 
exercised    the    greatest    influence    upon    him. 


22  Special  Method  in  Science. 

Through  Linnaeus,  system  came  to  the  highest 
renown.  In  the  effort  to  set  up  a  s^^stem,  which 
would  satisfy  all  requirements,  was  recognized  the 
highest  aim  of  scientific  natural  science.  In  quick 
succession  followed  the  systems  of  many  scien- 
tists. Is  it  any  wonder  that  system,  even  down 
to  the  common  schools,  became  tlie  chief  aim  of 
natural  science  instruction?  Moreover,  the  pur- 
suit of  this  aim  seems  to  satisfy  an  inevitable 
need,  that  of  bringing  knowledge  into  order,  by 
means  of  order  to  get  a  survey  of  the  multiplicity 
(die  vielheit)  of  single  things.  For  without  a  prin- 
ciple of  order  this  multiplicity  would  become  an 
unbearable  load."  (Das  vierte  Schuljahr,  p.  115.) 
The  drift  toward  scientific  classification  or  sys- 
tem has  been  very  strong  with  us,  especially  in 
high  schools  and  colleges  where  most  teachers 
are  trained.  .  In  the  study  of  botany,  for  exam- 
ple, the  chief  effort  was  directed  to  analysis 
and  determination  of  specimens.  When  chis 
process  had  gone  on  long  enough  to  secure  a 
superficial  grasp  of  all  the  important  classes  of 
plants  the  chief  result  was  attained.  The  zoolo- 
gies, a  few  years  ago,  contained  a  full  classifica- 
tion and  brief  description  of  the  leiiding  families 
and  orders  of  the  animal  kingdom.  The  text-books 
in  physics  and  chemistry  also  gave  a  brief  outline 
of  those  sciences.  In  all  these  cases  the  text 
book  played  the  principal  role,  and  the  true 
scientific  method  of  experiment  remained  unreal- 


History  of  Science  Teaching.  23 

ized.  The  text-book  methods  followed  systematic 
aims,  but  as  we  have  broken  with  the  text-books 
and  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  objects  in 
nature,  other  aims  than  those  of  classification 
have  become  prominent.  In  elementary  schools, 
especially,  it  is  not  well  to  emphasize  classifica- 
tions but  to  rest  the  work  more  upon  particular 
phases  of  object  study  and  experiment.  The 
studies  for  children  should  be  individual  and  bi- 
ographical. A  life  history  of  butterfly  or  squirrel, 
or  fish,  with  a  sufficient  consecutive  observation 
into  details  and  gathering-  of  facts  so  as  to  give 
a  deeper  insight  into  habits  and  mode  of  life,  is 
necessary.  Until  we  can  furnish  teachers  and 
children  with  the  opportunity  of  making:  such  bi- 
ographical studies  in  nature,  the  science  work  in 
our  common  schools  must  be  greatly  hampered. 
The  strong  tendency  of  text-books  in  natural  sci- 
ence to  be  systematic  (that  is,  to  give  the  outlines 
of  a  system),  almost  completely  destroys  their 
value  for  the  common  schools.  And  yet  all  true 
nature  study  leads  up  to  the  system  and  order  of 
the  universe.  As  children  gather  up  the  rich  ma- 
terials from  the  biographies  of  trees  and  insects,  of 
fish  or  bird,  they  will  gradually  gain  comprehen- 
sive views  of  the  chief  classes  and  underlying 
principles  of  order.  The  whole  movement  in  sci- 
ence teaching"  is  toward  an  adequate  grasp  of 
classes  and  laws.  The  great  mistake  is  made  in 
trying-  to  begin  where  we  ought  to  end.     Classifi- 


24  Special  Method  in  Science. 

cations  are  the  abstract  forms  of  science  and 
sum  up  the  results  of  study,  while  the  character- 
istic value  of  early  science  lessons  is  their  con- 
creteness.  Children  are  easily  and  naturally 
attentive  to  the  concrete  phases  of  object  study, 
while  they  turn  away  in  dislike  from  the  barren 
study  of  classes.  If  we  can  answer  the  question 
how  to  approach  the  general  truths  of  science, 
we  shall  probably  have  the  solution  to  the  most 
troublesome  problem  in  this  study,  and  at  the 
same  time  settle  some  of  the  most  vexed  ques- 
tions in  methods  of  teaching. 


The  Leading  Aim.  25 


THE  LEADING  AIM. 


•E  ARE  not  content,  therefore,  with  any  of 
the  four  aims  of  science  study  thus  far  sug- 
gested. Neither  singly  nor  combined  have 
they  sufficient  value  to  stand  as  the  central,  con- 
trolling aim  of  the  great  procession  of  nature  les- 
sons. How,  then,  shall  we  find  a  standpoint  from 
which  to  survey  this  broad  field  of  studies  and 
discover  the  leading  aim  for  its  conquest? 

We  may  get  a  suggestion  of  the  proper  attitude 
for  attacking  this  problem  from  the  child  himself. 
He  is  the  one,  after  all,  who  is  most  concerned 
with  the  outcome  of  our  theories.  What  use  has 
he  for  this  large  world  of  varied  realities  both  now 
and  in  the  future?  If  you  ask  him  the  question 
outright,  he  will  remain  as  speechless  as  the 
sphinx,  but  if  brought  face  to  face  with  nature's 
teachings  he  may  respond  heartly  in  a  score  of 
ways.  As  parents  and  teachers  it  is  our  business 
to  take  a  sort  of  composite  photograph  of  a  child's 
present  impulses  and  future  needs,  and  then,  by 
combining  our  knowledge  of  children  with  the 
garnered  wisdom  of  the  w^orld  in  matters  of  edu- 
cation, we  may  possibly  discover  a  method  of 
teaching  which  will  satisfy  a  child's  present  grow- 


26  Special  Method  in  Science. 

ing"  needs  for  food  and  nourishment,  and  at  the 
same  time  fit  him  for  his  future  life  in  the  midst 
of  nature  and  society.  If  the  old  saying"  is  true 
that  the  child  is  father  to  the  man,  that  is,  fore- 
shadowing* what  the  man  will  be,  he  has  within 
him  those  better  instincts  and  tendencies  which, 
if  properly  developed,  will  make  him  the  father 
of  the  right  sort  of  man,  that  is,  the  instincts 
which  will  prompt  him  to  respond  vig"orously  to 
those  methods  of  science  study  which  gave  him 
the  best  preparation  for  life. 

We  may  state  the  broad  aim  of  science  studies 
as  a  responsive  insight  into  nature,  an  interested  un- 
derstanding' of  the  materials  and  activities  of  her 
great  workshop,  an  appreciation  of  the  variety, 
beauty,  harmony,  and  law^  of  nature's  handiwork. 
If  a  child  is  to  reach  maturity  with  a  proper  in- 
sight into  physical  laws,  forces,  products,  utilities, 
and  inventive  appliances,  he  must  begin  early  to 
train  his  eye  and  his  understanding-  to  look  into 
these  wonders.  Yet  this  is  not  a  dull  business  to 
a  child.  It  is  the  very  thing-  he  is  most  of  all  in- 
clined to  do  if  kept  in  a  proper  attitude  and  pru- 
dently guided  in  his  employments.  It  falls  in  with 
his  present  impulses  toward  physical  activity  and 
mental  expansion.  The  native  interests  which 
call  forth  his  energetic  effort,  both  physical  and 
mental,  are  powerfully  directed  toward  the  many 
curious  and  useful  attractions  in  nature.  Nature 
study  should  lead  to  something  beyond  useful 


The  Leading  Aim.  27 

knowledge,  sense-training,  observation,  discipline 
and  the  mastery  of  scientific  order  and  system. 
With  these  and  through  them  it  should  appeal 
to  his  instinctive  interests,  because  of  its  recog- 
nized value  to  him,  because  it  reveals  the  physical 
world  to  him  and  to  his  needs.  It  thus  enters  as 
a  constituent  element  into  his  own  personal  cul- 
ture and  growth;  it  becomes  a  part  of  his  life  and 
character.  If  we  devote  our  whole  energy  to  any 
of  the  secondary  or  subordinate  aims  of  science 
study,  we  shall  make  the  work  mechanical  and 
superficial  and  not  attain  even  such  lower  aims. 
If  we  follow  the  higher  aim,  to  give  to  each  child 
a  x^ersonal  insight,  a  sympathetic  appreciation  of 
the  realm  of  nature,  so  far  as  it  can  be  grasped 
by  his  mind,  if  we  seek  to  enshrine  all  this  know- 
ledge in  his  tastes,  interests,  and  feelings,  we  shall 
find  this  phase  of  culture  an  essential  agency  in 
personal  character  development.  Not  that  it  con- 
tributes directly  to  his  moral  sense,  but  it  appeals 
to  his  esthetic  tastes,  religious  instincts,  and 
human  wants.  It  supplies  him  with  the  materials 
and  tools  for  the  exercise  of  his  present  urgent 
activities,  and  its  utilities  are  found  to  be  so  inter- 
woven with  the  comforts  and  progress  of  men  that 
nature  is  seen  to  lay  down  the  conditions  of  life. 
Every  child,  therefore,  should  go  into  nature 
studies  up  to  the  full  measure  of  his  powers  and 
come  out  enriched  in    knowledge,  in  discipline, 


28  Special  Method  in  Science, 

and  especially  in  sympathetic  insight  and  strong" 
personal  attachment  to  their  teachings. 

The  broad  aim  of  science  teaching,  as  quoted 
from  Kraepelin  by  Rein,  is  as  follows: 

"The  aim  is  to  open  up  to  a  pupil  an  under- 
standing* of  the  present  and  to  find  thereby  a  frank 
and  all-sided  philosophical  view  of  the  world, 
founded  upon  reality  and  truth.  Nature  should 
not  present  to  man  the  appearance  of  an  inextri- 
cable chaos  but  that  of  a  w^ell-ordered  mechanism, 
its  parts  fitting  exactly  to  one  another,  ruled  by 
unchangeable  laws  and  engaged  in  perpetual 
labor  and  production.  The  proof  of  order  in  the 
world-whole  is  made  clear  to  the  investigator  by 
setting  up  a  system  of  things;  the  exact  fitting 
and  mutual  interaction  of  the  single  parts  reveals 
itself  in  the  thousandfold  relations  of  natural  ob- 
jects to  one  another;  faith  in  laws  governing  the 
whole  is  produced  by  a  knowledge  of  an  ever- 
consistent  causality,  while  ceaseless  activity  and 
production  arise  out  of  the  coming  and  going  of 
individuals  as  of  generations." 

This  is  a  comprehensive  and  well-phrased 
statement  of  the  aim  of  science  teaching  from  the 
knowledge  side.  The  method  of  approach  by 
which  the  attitude  of  the  children  toward  this 
great  body  of  educative  material  is  determined  is 
of  equal  importance  in  considering  the  educative 
aim.  The  fundamental  question  in  this  study,  as 
in  others,  is  the  influence  of  these  materials  and 


The  Leading  Aim.  29 

of  the  method  of  their  acquisition  upon  the  char- 
acter of  children.  The  selection  and  arrang-ement 
of  topics  in  natural  science,  together  with  the 
method  of  working  them  over  into  knowledge 
with  classes,  is  just  as  important  as  the  organized 
knowledge  itself. 

The  aim  set  up  for  natural  science  studies  calls 
for  the  surmounting  of  two  commanding  difficul- 
ties. On  the  one  side  the  ultimate  purpose  to 
reach  something  of  a  scientific  mastery  of  the 
order  and  system  of  nature,  and  on  the  other  side 
to  reach  efficiently,  through  the  matter  and 
method  of  the  study,  the  character  of  the  child. 
The  conquest  is  the  child's  in  both  cases  under 
the  teacher's  guidance. 


30  Special  Method  in  Science. 


n-  ROAD  TO  THE  AIM, 


'O  STATE  such  an  aim  as  this  for  nature 
study  in  the  common  school  is  easy,  but  to 
illustrate  and  work  it  out  in  detail  so  as 
show  its  practicality,  is  extremely  difficult.  It  is 
incumbent  upon  us  to  point  out  the  line  of  effort 
which  will  lead  to  the  aim  given. 

The  first  prominent  requirement  is  to  select  a 
series  of  topics  for  the  grades.  The  endless  vari- 
ety and  multitude  of  objects  in  nature,  the  great 
diversity  of  branches  as  botany,  geology,  physics, 
and  astronomy,  seems  at  the  start  to  make  a  se- 
lection very  difficult.  In  any  limited  department 
of  science  like  zoology,  it  is  not  easy  to  establish 
the  true  order  of  development  of  the  subject, 
whether,  for  example,  to  begin  with  the  lower, 
simpler  forms  of  animal  life  or  with  more  complex 
and  highly  organized  groups.  But  in  nature- 
study  considered  as  a  whole  the  question  comes 
how  to  select  and  arrange  materials  drawn  from 
a  dozen  widely  different  sciences. 

The  question  might  be  asked  in  the  first  place 
whether  we  need  a  graded  course  of  science  les- 
sons somewhat  definitely  laid  out.  We  answer  in 
the  affirmative.     The  great  difficulty  with  most 


A  Road  to  the  Aim.  31 

teachers,  who  would  be  glad  to  teach  nature  les- 
sons, is  that  they  are  not  sufficiently  well  versed 
in  scientific  studies  to  select  and  arrange  a  series 
of  lessons  for  any  given  grade.  But  if  some  one 
capable  of  making  such  a  list  will  outline  the 
suitable  topics,  the  teachers  of  that  grade  can 
set  themselves  to  work  to  qualify  along  the  lines 
of  those  topics.  If  the  one  selecting  will  also 
take  the  pains  to  suggest  the  best  ways  of  collect- 
ing materials  and  of  observing,  and  point  out  a 
few  of  the  most  helpful  books,  teachers  will  be 
able  to  make  rapid  progress  in  teaching.  There 
is  simply  no  question  but  that  the  great  majority 
of  teachers  need  definite  suggestion  and  help  in 
selecting  and  arranging  their  topics,  and  in  study- 
ing up  and  observing  by  way  of  preparation. 

Taking  it  for  granted,  therefore,  that  work  of 
this  kind  is  imperatively  needed,  it  will  pay  us  to 
still  further  draw  the  necessary  limitations  that 
surround  this  work  so  that  we  may  more  definitely 
comprehend  the  nature  of  our  task.  The  subject 
before  us  is  not  natural  science  (classified  knowl- 
edge), but  nature  study.  We  are  seeking  to  know 
nature  in  her  real  forms,  as  she  shows  herself  in 
field,  forest,  and  shop,  not  the  classified  orders 
and  system  of  the  scientific  books.  It  is  the  con- 
crete, living  forms  that  we  deal  with  rather  than 
the  principles  and  schemata  of  the  scientists. 
Again,  we  shall  not  master  any  of  the  sciences 
even  in   their  outlines.     We  are   not  aiming  at 


32  Special  Method  in  Science. 

scientific  completeness.  A  fixed  quantity  of 
knowledge  and  the  fullness  of  detail  necessary 
to  a  system  are  not  necessary  to  our  purpose. 
We  shall  select  a  few  of  the  best  type  forms  and 
enter  into  their  concrete  details  and  relations. 

The  selection  of  topics  will  not  be  based  upon 
a  strict  scientific  order,  either  in  one  or  in  all 
the  sciences.  This  scientific  order  will  not  be 
ignored,  but  it  will  not  control.  Pedagog-ical  con- 
siderations will  determine  in  the  main  the  order 
of  topics. 

For  the  first  four  grades,  which  we  shall  con- 
sider in  this  book,  we  will  confine  ourselves  mainly 
to  biology,  or  the  study  of  plant  and  animal  biog- 
raphies. The  common  objects  of  the  home  neigh- 
borhood will  be  mainly  studied.  The  season  of 
the  year  will  often  suggest  suitable  studies.  The 
best  scientific  types  of  great  classes  or  processes 
in  nature  will  be  selected  for  detailed  investiga- 
tion. The  history,  literature,  and  geography 
of  any  given  grade  will  suggest  a  variety  of 
science  topics.  Many  of  these,  so  far  as  they 
harmonize  with  our  other  principles  of  selection, 
will  be  chosen  for  treatment,  because  they  help  to 
bind,  the  science  topics  with  those  other  studies. 

The  study  of  plant  and  animal  life  seems  pecu- 
liarly appropriate  to  children.  They  like  espe- 
cially the  activities  of  animals,  the  observation 
of  their  movements  among  the  trees,  in  the  air,  or 
in  water.     Of  all  things  in  nature,  animal  life 


A  Boad  to  the  Aim.  33 

comes  closer  to  the  children  because  they  find  so 
many  likenesses  to  their  own  activities.  Plants 
and  flowers  also  attract  them,  and  they  love  the 
changes  and  processes  of  growth,  the  seeds,  flow- 
ers, roots,  fruits,  and  uses  of  natural  products. 
There  is  a  sort  of  personal  interest  in  the  study  of 
animal  or  plant  that  is  lacking"  in  other  forms  of 
nature  study.  The  seedling  plant  grows,  feeds, 
and  develops  as  does  the  child.  It  has  its  dan- 
gers and  enemies,  its  childhood,  maturity,  and  old 
age;  its  winter  and  summer.  For  a  child  to  trace 
the  butterfly  from  the  egg  through  its  processes  of 
change  and  final  perfection  in  the  insect  state,  is 
a  very  interesting  biography. 

Second,  the  commonest  objects  of  the  home 
neighborhood  will  be  minutely  studied.  This  is 
the  true  basis  of  proper  study;  it  gives  the  fullest 
possible  opportunity  for  real  observation  and  in- 
vestigation. Even  the  common  weeds,  like  the 
burdock  and  thistle,  are  far  better  than  exotics. 
The  study  of  home  objects  should  come  first,  be- 
cause it  forms  a  good  basis  for  later  study  of  more 
distant  ones.  Besides,  the  home  furnishes,  among 
plants  and  animals,  enough  types  for  a  compre- 
hensive study  of  these  subjects  so  far  as  needed. 

The  season  of  the  year  must  determine  to  a 
large  extent  the  best  time  for  the  study  of  plant 
and  animal  life.  The  budding  and  blossoming  of 
the  trees  must  be  noted  in  the  early  spring.  The 
bees  can  be  studied  in  spring  or  fall;  the  spring 


34        '  Special  Method  in  iScience. 

plants  may  be  dug  up  in  spring--time;  the  seeds 
and  pods  are  best  noticed  in  autumn;  the  ever- 
greens may  be  taken  in  winter  and  spring,  Of 
course,  any  given  tree  or  plant  needs  to  be  traced 
through  the  season,  and  the  robin  should  be  seen 
on  his  return,  in  the  nesting  season,  and  when  he 
returns  to  the  South  in  autumn. 

The  type  studies  form  convenient  centers  of 
instruction,  which  prove  serviceable  both  scien- 
tifically considered  and  as  a  basis  for  pedagogical 
treatment  of  topics.  It  is  better  to  make  a  full 
and  careful  study  of  one  of  the  rodents,  as  the 
fox-squirrel,  with  the  descriptive  detail  of  his 
nest,  habits  in  summer  and  winter,  his  food  and 
rearing  of  the  young,  his  enemies  and  devices  for 
escaping  them,  his  noises  and  movements  in  climb- 
ing and  running,  his  fur  and  its  uses,  the  make 
of  his  teeth  and  claws  as  suited  to  their  uses,  and 
his  kinship  with  other  squirrels.  Such  a  biography 
of  individual  and  family  life  among  squirrels  gives 
not  only  a  graphic  picture  of  this  little  animal,  but 
allows  a  variety  of  observation  and  comparison 
with  other  animals,  similar  or  opposite,  that  may 
be  incidental  yet  valuable.  In.  the  same  way  the 
study  of  the  cow  among  ruminants  becomes  a  type 
of  that  class,  the  milkweed  butterfly  among  but- 
terflies, the  maple  or  oak  among  trees,  the  dande- 
lion or  thistle  or  sunflower  among  composite 
flowers.  The  type  form,  when  fully  described  in 
its  continuous   life   history,  is   not   only  a  very 


A  Road  to  the  Aim.  35 

interesting  and  instructive  object  to  children, 
because  of  the  abundance  of  attractive  detail,  but 
it  is  a  key  to  the  understanding-  of  a  multitude  of 
similar  or  related  plants  or  animals.  The  study 
of  the  cat,  for  examjjle,  as  to  retractile  claws, 
eyes,  and  muscular  and  bony  structure,  gives  a 
clear  view  of  a  whole  class  of  animals.  A  brief 
comparison  of  the  domestic  cat  with  the  tig^er, 
wildcat,  etc.,  is  all  that  is  needed  to  make  the 
knowledge  fairly  complete.  Without  the  g"uid- 
ance  of  these  larg^er  units  or  type  forms,  the  topics 
chosen  by  teachers  are  often  very  partial  or  mis- 
cellaneous. For  example,  the  study  and  compari- 
son of  leaves  on  trees,  the  comparison  of  twigs, 
and  the  arrangement  of  buds  and  twigs,  or  leaves, 
on  the  stem.  Such  topics  come  up  incidentally 
and  naturally  in  the  handling  of  a  type. 

The  type  studies  furnish  great  units  of  thought, 
which  are  complete,  very  suggestive  in  a  purely 
scientific  sense,  and  yet  full  of  the  interest  and 
information  of  a  continuous  biography.  They 
give  also  an  insight  into  great  processes  in  na- 
ture, as  the  development  of  an  animal  from  the 
egg  and  its  growth  and  changes  till  maturity  and 
death.  The  type  form,  thus  fully  studied,  allows 
of  the  tracing  of  those  deeper  causal  relations  of 
a  plant  or  animal  to  its  environment,  to  other 
plants  and  animals  as  well  as  to  soil  and  sun- 
shine, to  weatlier  and  other  influences,  w^hich 
bind  any  topic  with  many  other  topics  and  knit 


36  Special  Method  in  Science. 

the   sciences    into   a   net-work   of    mutual   rela- 
tions. 

The  series  of  topics  for  science  work  in  the 
g"rades  will  be  determined  largely  also  by  the  sug- 
gestions of  the  other  studies.  History  and  geog- 
raphy and  literature  have  many  references  to 
topics  in  natural  science.  In  laying  out  a  course 
of  science  studies  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  dis- 
regard the  close  relations  of  the  other  studies  to 
natural  science.  This  is  especially  true  in  pri- 
mary and  intermediate  grades  where  the  number 
of  science  topics  relative  to  plant  and  animal  life 
suggested  by  literature,  geography,  and  history, 
is  very  great.  The  fairy  stories  and  fables  used 
in  first  and  second  grade,  the  Robinson  Crusoe  in 
second  and  third,  and  the  myths  in  third  and 
fourth  are  full  of  plant  and  animal  life.  The 
pioneer  history  stories  and  the  geography  of  our 
own  country  in  fourth  and  fifth  grades  are  rich  in 
natural  products  and  references  to  vegetable  and 
animal  life.  The  closer  these  subjects  are  drawn 
together,  the  more  intimately  they  stand  related 
and  support  one  another,  the  more  telling  will  be 
the  effect  of  each  branch  upon  the  children.  It 
is  no  longer  possible  to  make  out  an  isolated 
course  of  study  in  natural  science.  The  combined 
effect  of  all  studies  upon  a  child  is  the  great  con- 
sideration and  the  knowledge  and  discipline  each 
furnishes  may  be  got  into  the  bargain. 


A  Boad  to  the  Aim.  37 

The  selection  of  a  few  important  type  studies, 
each  of  which  is  to  be  worked  out  in  full  detail, 
has  the  following  advantages: 

1.  Each  type  is  an  important  center  of  thought 
around  which  to  associate  a  large  body  of  related 
material. 

2.  Each  type  is  the  representative  of  a  large 
class  of  more  or  less  similar  objects  (basis  of 
classification). 

3.  Great  abundance  of  concrete  material  is 
gathered  about  each  type  object,  contributing  to 
interest  and  clear  perception. 

4.  A  continuous  biographical  study  of  life-his- 
tory or  development  has  strong  interest  and  con- 
secutive force. 

5.  The  deeper  causal  and  vital  relations  that 
bind  plant  or  animal  to  its  environment  can  only 
be  traced  out  by  this  detailed  study  of  a  single 
important  object. 

6.  A  single  important  topic  is  kept  before  the 
children  long  enough  not  only  to  gather  up  a 
varied  collection  of  experimental  knowledge 
about  it,  but  to  organize  it,  and  to  bring  it  into 
relation  to  other  topics. 

7.  The  type  studies  pave  the  way  to  a  recog- 
nition oi  general  laios  in  natural  phenomena  which 
give  the  most  comprehensive  views.  This  pro- 
cess of  working  up  to  an  understanding  of  the 
general  laws  of  nature  is  so  important  that  we 
will  consider  it  separately. 


38  Special  Method  in  Science. 

The  second  principal  means  by  which  we  seek 
to  realize  the  chief  aim  of  science  teaching  is  by 
studying  out  the  general  laws  which  underlie  the 
phenomena  of  the  organic  and  inorganic  world. 

Children  are  to  acquire  gradually  an  insight 
into  the  unity  that  prevails  in  nature.  At  first 
the  endless  variety  of  objects  and  activities  in 
nature  gives  a  child  no  notion  of  the  underlying 
harmony  and  connection  of  the  varied  parts, 
but  as  the  insight  into  wide  reaching  laws  is 
revealed  to  him  he  finds  strong  links  of  union, 
binding  all  the  parts  into  one. 

This  unity  shows  itself  in  the  life  of  any  plant 
or  animal,  in  the  laws  which  govern  its  internal 
organization  and  external  adaptation  of  organs 
to  environment. 

Junge,  as  quoted  by  Rein,  presents  this  unity 
in  nature  based  upon  laws  as  follows: 

"Life  is  characterized  first  of  all  by  the  fact  of 
movement  either  of  the  inner  parts  of  a  body  (its 
constituents)  or  of  the  external  parts  or  organs. 
These  movements  have  a  connection  dependent 
upon  the  whole  as  a  totality  of  parts  (law  of  con- 
struction or  of  connection).  If  no  agreement  were 
found  in  the  mutual  relation  of  all  the  parts  they 
could  not  be  united  into  a  whole.  The  cause  of 
these  harmonized  movements  is  the  indwelling 
agreement  of  the  parts,  not  an  external  force 
(contrast  of  organism  and  mechanism). 


A  Road  to  the  Aiw,  39 

^Through  tins  movement  is  brought  about  (1) 
the  growth  and  development  of  an  individual 
from  a  lower  to  a  higher  stage  of  completeness; 
(2)  the  preservation  of  the  thing  itself.  The 
indwelling  effort  of  all  the  parts  or  members 
toward  the  preservation  and  perfection  of  the 
whole  is  the  life  principle  (law  of  preservation, 
accommodation— of  organic  harmony,  of  develop- 
ment). Let  the  impulse  to  harmony  of  inner  or 
external  movements  cease,  there  enters  a  condi- 
tion of  decay  and  death. 

'Life  in  nature  is  a  unit  not  simply  as  far  as 
each  organism  constitutes  a  unity,  but  also  so  far 
as  an  agreement  shows  itself  in  the  inner  causes 
of  life  activities  in  different  individuals,  that  is 
so  far  as  laws  manifest  themselves.  The  laws 
prevailing  in  individuals  have  at  least  a  strong 
resemblance  to  those  which  rule  in  a  whole  group 
of  individuals,  a  life  society  (even  the  earth  con- 
sidered as  such),  though  the  laws  are  not  just  the 
same. 

"Children  should  get  an  understanding  of  life 
in  its  unity.  Now  it  will  not  suffice  to  secure  to 
children  an  observation  of  life  manifestations. 
Such  knowledge  could  be  called  at  best  only 
information  about  life.  An  understanding  of  life 
depends  upon  an  explanation  of  phenomena  as 
based  upon  causes  permeating  the  whole,  as 
based  upon  the  laws  of  life  activity.  Without  a 
knowledge  of  and  application  of  laws,  there  is 


40  Special  Method  in  IScience. 

no  understanding-,  just  as  in  instruction  in  physics, 
when  we  bring-  out  no  law,  but  offer  the  children  a 
motley  variety  (as  e.  g.,  an  ordinary  scale,  a  see- 
saw, a  steel-yard,  a  crowbar,  a  wheelbarrow,  a  pair 
of  pincers,  etc.),  so  all  nature  without  a  knowledg-e 
of  laws,  remains  a  kaleidoscope,  which,  according 
to  the  play  of  chance,  ever  brings  out  a  different 
picture  with  the  same  colors.  When  we  bring-  to 
notice  a  law— though  not  mathematically  exact  in 
its  formulation— it  furnishes  the  mental  unity  or 
means  in  all  these  varied  illustrative  forms  (of 
the  lever).  So  throug-hout  the  whole  of  nature  by 
means  of  laws  there  is  revealed  in  the  midst  of 
the  most  striking-  diversity  a  uniformity  of  life 
which  reaches  even  into  human  affairs. 

"Should  we  inquire  upon  what  road  a  knowledge 
of  the  facts  and  chang-es  in  nature,  both  in  single 
thing-s  and  in  more  complex  wholes,  may  be 
reached,  a  brief  consideration  will  give  us  a  ready 
answer.  The  simpler,  i.  e.,  the  less  intensive  and 
extensive  life  displays  itself,  the  more  easily  can 
the  laws  of  its  manifestations  be  recognized. 
They  are  more  easily  perceived  in  the  changes  of 
inorganic  than  in  those  of  organic  nature.  The 
life  of  a  lower  organism  is  more  easily  understood 
than  that  of  a  higher;  the  life  of  a  single  organ- 
ism easier  than  that  of  a  life  society;  and,  finally 
the  life  of  a  group  or  life  society,  accessible  to 
observation,  more  easily  than  one  of  the  whole 
earth.     The  following  serial  order,  therefore,  re- 


A  Boad  to  the  Aim.  41 

suits:  1.  Observation  of  life  in  the  single  thing 
and  successive  recognition  of  the  different  funda- 
mental laws;  2.  Recognition  of  the  discovered 
laws  in  small  life  groups  accessible  to  the  child's 
view;  3.  Application  of  the  laws  to  unfamiliar  ob- 
jects and  life  societies.  4.  Application  and  redis- 
covery in  the  entire  life  of  the  earth.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  satisfy  the  above  mentioned  require- 
ments in  a  strict  schematic  way.  Schematism 
would  do  violence  to  organic  development  and 
comprehension.  It  is  rather  advisable  at  every 
stage  of  progress  to  aim  at  a  well-rounded  whole, 
and  in  view  of  the  final  aim  to  make  use,  little 
by  little  of  the  results  springing  from  the  other 
natural  sciences  as  the  progress  of  instruction 
renders  them  possible.  In  a  final  course  all  the 
knowledge  gained  at  different  times  from  differ- 
ent natural  science  fields  should  be  elaborated 
into  a  unity  in  consciousness.  Thus  children 
acquire  a  conviction  and  an  understanding  of  life 
upon  the  earth,  in  whose  chain  of  created  things 
man  also  is  a  link.  He  learns  also  to  see  himself 
in  the  mirror  of  nature." 

In  biology,  which  furnishes  a  large  share  of 
the  topics  for  science  lessons,  there  are  two  kinds 
of  units  of  thought,  single  animals  or  plants  and 
life  groups.  Thesingleanimalor  plant,  asatype, 
we  have  already  discussed.  The  biographical 
story,  or  life  history,  in  full,  of  such  a  plant  or 
animal,  especially  when  brought  into  comparison 


42  Special  Method  in  Science. 

with  similar  biographies  of  other  plants  or  ani- 
mals, reveals  many  of  the  fundamental  laws  of  or- 
ganic life  in  nature. 

The  life  society  or  group  is  a  much  more  complex 
object  of  study.  It  is  not  a  scientific  group,  but 
a  natural  group  of  closely  related  and  mutually 
dependent  objects  in  nature.  A  natural  forest 
well  illustrates  such  a  group,  the  various  forest 
trees,  the  wild  flowers  and  grasses  peculiar  to 
woodsy  places  the  birds  and  squirrels  and  insects 
that  naturally  find  their  homes  and  food  among 
the  trees.  Even  the  soil,  moisture,  and  sunlight, 
among  inorganic  things,  contribute  the  conditions 
for  a  mutually  dependent  and  helpful  group  of  liv- 
ing organisms.  The  birds  depend  upon  the  trees, 
the  trees  depend  on  insects  for  the  cross-fertiliza- 
tion of  flowers;  the  bloodroot  and  other  wild  flow- 
ers flourish  in  the  shade  of  trees.  The  study  of 
the  different  members  of  this  family  group,  and 
the  study  of  the  whole  varied  family  in  its  rela- 
tions will  bring  out  still  other  fundamental  laws 
in  nature. 

Rein  says :  ' 'As  the  basis  of  our  studies,  we  are 
called  upon  always  to  select  a  natural  whole;  and 
first  of  all,  such  a  whole  is  found  in  every  single 
living  object,  for  each  is  an  organism,  i.  e.,  a  thing 
whose  parts  stand  in  relation  to  one  another  and 
to  the  whole."  Nature  study,  therefore,  should 
deal  not  with  fragments,  but  with  wholes;  not 
with  leaves  or  buds  as  isolated  topics,  but  with 


A  Road  to  the  Aim.  43 

trees  or  plants  as  wholes  of  which  the  leaves  or 
buds  are  parts.  The  unit  of  thoug"ht  should  al- 
ways be  in  mind  and  stand  as  the  basis  of  study. 
"A  single  living  organism,  however,  is  only  a 
part  of  the  great  world  machine.  In  many  of  its 
relations  it  is  dependent  upon  other  objects,  as  a 
strip  of  earth,  etc.,  which* influence  it  and  in  turn 
are  influenced  by  it.  Thus  we  find  different  ob- 
jects together.  A  number  of  objects  bound  to- 
gether by  common  or  similar  needs  or  by  mutual 
aid  rendered,  form  a  life  society,  in  which  each  one 
fills  out  its  place  and  part  in  the  whole.  These 
life  societies  are  considered  as  composed  of  or- 
ganically connected  single  things.  When  several 
such  life  societies,  as  for  example,  forest,  field, 
swamp,  meadow,  etc.,  whose  unity  the  children 
can  survey,  are  observed  and  their  importance  for 
the  home  brought  out  clearly,  for  which  all  taken 
together  constitute  a  unity;  by  such  observations 
the  way  is  prepared  for  an  understanding  of  the 
entire  life  of  the  earth.  Such  wholes,  whether 
single  objects  or  life  groups,  we  analyze  into 
their  parts  and  inquire,  what  parts  are  these, 
what  purpose  have  theyi  and  why  so  made  and 
not  differently?  With  a  plant  before  us  we 
notice  the  parts.  As  to  the  root,  we  observe 
not  only  its  fibres,  but  its  work,  and  why  so  con- 
structed; why  different  in  sand,  or  clay,  or  in 
rich  soil.  The  leaf  is  noted  as  to  form,  also  its 
function  and  the  reason  for  its  being  flattened 


44  Special  Method  in  Science. 

out;  why  in  water  plants  it  is  modified  by  the 
depth  of  the  water;  why  in  land  plants  it  is  some- 
times hairy,  sometimes  hairless.  So,  also,  in  the 
study  of  animals.  Org"an  and  function  should  al- 
ways be  brought  into  the  closest  relation.  So  we 
come  to  understand  why  a  foot  is  modified  to 
adapt  it  to  a  changed  purpose,  as  a  webbed  foot, 
a  wing,  or  a  hand  for  grasping;  why  the  skeleton 
of  birds,  for  example,  is  different  from  that  of 
mammals." 

By  the  constant  emphasis  of  the  correlation 
between  organ  and  function,  the  child's  mind  is 
kept  awake  to  the  fact  that  he  has  to  do  with  a 
living  thing,  for  the  eye  must  pass  from  the  con- 
struction of  the  organ  to  its  use  in  life,  and  vice 
versa.  In  the  second  place,  we  satisfy  the  demand 
for  causality,  which  is  really  the  impulsive  ele- 
ment in  the  development  of  the  human  mind. 
That  this  is  present  in  the  child  is  manifest  in  his 
many  "whys." 

The  study  of  these  laws  and  causal  relations 
between  objects  and  life  groups  in  nature  re- 
veals in  a  striking  way  the  total  inadequacy  of  a 
method  of  science  study,  which  isolates  the  dif- 
ferent sciences,  as  botany  or  zoology,  and  tries  to 
build  up  a  system  and  classification  of  each  by 
itself.  In  the  biography  of  any  animal  or  plant, 
and  also  in  the  life  societies,  the  vital  organic  re- 
lations between  plants,  animals,  minerals,  sun- 
light,  etc.,   are   cross   sections   in    the    sciences, 


A  Road  to  the  Aim.  45 

which  disregard  our  efforts  at  isolation  and  arti- 
ficial system  making-.  It  is  in  these  inter-rela- 
tions of  the  different  sciences  that  we  find  the 
deeper  and  more  instructive  causes  operating-  in 
nature.  Classifications  in  botany  or  zoology  are 
important,  but  the  study  of  causes  acting  between 
different  sciences  is  often  more  significant,  in- 
structive, and  stimulating. 

*'We  answer  the  question  —Why? — by  referring 
to  a  cause.  A  definite  form  of  statement  for  the 
connection  of  certain  effects  with  certain  causes 
we  denominate  a  natural  law.  (In  this  connection 
we  should  not  forget  that  laws  are  not  the  causes 
of  phenomena.)  We  do  not  expect,  of  course,  to 
give  these  laws  to  the  pupil,  and  we  shall  not 
be  over  hasty  in  pressing  for  their  formulation. 
When  the  pupil  has  found  out  in  a  large  number 
of  living  things  that  while  structure  and  life  show 
great  diversity,  yet  certain  mutual  relations  al- 
ways come  to  light,  that  a  change  in  the  one 
always  means  a  change  in  the  others;  then  it  is 
not  premature  to  let  children  derive  the  most  im- 
portant biological  laws.  'They  are  the  constant, 
permanent  element  in  the  ebb  and  flow  of  phe- 
nomena, as  it  were  the  spiritual  in  nature,  and 
nothing  short  of  the  tracing-  back  of  i)henomena 
to  these  laws  can  give  an  understanding  of  life, 
and — so  far  as  the  laws  are  universal— a  knowl- 
edge of  the  unity  in  nature.'  (Junge.)  So  long  as 
no  law  has  been  worked  out,  the  teacher  must  be 


46  Special  Method  in  Science. 

the  guide  in  making-  observations.  The  laws,  or 
rather  the  final  aim  of  the  natural  science  instruc- 
tion, must  be  ever  present  to  his  thought,  whether 
he  be  selecting  the  material  of  instruction  or  em- 
ployed in  its  treatment.  When  a  law  has  been 
once  recognized,  then  in  many  cases  it  may  as- 
sume the  leadership;  it  gives  direction  to  present 
undertakings  as  well  as  to  future  observations 
and  experiments.  Pupils  now  examine  living  crea- 
tures according  to  the  measure  of  one  or  more  laws; 
they  begin  to  investigate  the  question  whether, 
in  a  given  creature,  manner  of  life,  habitat  and 
structure  of  organs  correspond,  or  whether  an 
organism  develops  from  a  simpler  form  up  to  a 
stage  of  completeness,  etc."     (Rein.) 

The  last  sentence  suggests  the  two  simple  fun- 
damental laws  by  which  most  of  the  phenomena 
of  organic  life  (plant  and  animal)  may  be  inter- 
preted and  a  deep  insight  gained  into  life  pro- 
cesses. 

1.  Is  the  law  of^  physiological  purpose,  or  law  of 
preservation;  that  is,  manner  of  life,  habitat,  and 
structure  of  organs  correspond.  Every  animal  or 
plant  is  peculiarly  adapted  by  its  organs  and  mode 
of  life  to  its  environmont.  To  discover  and  trace 
out  this  law  in  the  varied  and  widely  divergent 
forms  of  life,  is  one  of  the  most  instructive  and 
permanently  stimulating  thoughts  in  nature  study. 

2.  Is  the  law  of  development  Every  organism 
develops  from  the  simple  up  to  the  stage  of  com- 


A  Road  to  the  Aim.  47 

pleteness.  Here  again,  to  trace  the  life  history 
through  its  successive  stages  of  growth  up  to 
maturity,  reproduction,  and  decay,  reveals  amidst 
endless  variations  a  sameness  and  constancy  of 
life  processes  which  make  nature's  work  almost 
wonderful  in  its  simplicity.  Still  other  important 
laws  which  may  develop  out  of  thoughtful  nature 
studies  are  taken  from  Junge,  as  follows: 

3.  The  law  of  adaptation  or  accommodation, 
manner  of  life,  and  structure  of  organs  adapt  them- 
selves, within  certain  limits,  to  a  changed  habitat 
or  set  of  relations.  Beyond  these  limits  follows 
the  death  or  crippling  of  the  organism. 

4.  The  law  of  division  of  labor  or  differentiation 
of  organs.  The  more  the  whole  work  is  distrib- 
uted to  different  organs  the  more  perfect  is  its 
execution.  Or,  the  more  numerous  the  organs  for 
different  services  the  more  perfectly  can  each 
organ  perform  its  special  service. 

5.  The  law  of  organic  harmony  is  the  first  law 
applied  to  the  earth  as  a  life  society. 

We  have  dwelt  somewhat  at  length  upon  these 
laws  because  they  serve  so  well  to  illustrate  the 
possibility  of  making  such  a  study  of  nature  in 
the  organic  as  well  as  in  the  inorganic  world  as 
will  lead  on  to  a  simple  and  practical  conception 
of  the  unity  in  nature.  Moreover  it  is  the  actual 
unity  which,  as  based  upon  persistent  and  omni- 
present relations  of  cause  and  effect,  reveals 
nature  in  her  ordinary  dress  and  not  in  the  arti- 


48   '  Special  Method  in  Science. 

ficial  form  of  scientific  classifications,  isolating" 
the  different  sciences  from  one  another. 

In  the  study  of  life  histories,  life  societies,  and 
in  the  working*  out  of  simple  fundamental  laws,  we 
may  lead  on  to  a  grasp  of  the  unity  of  life  pro- 
cesses in  nature  and  to  such  an  interest,  insight, 
and  habit  of  study  as  to  greatly  influence  character. 

The  influence  that  nature  study  has  upon 
character  depends  largely  upon  the  hold  it  gets 
upon  the  child's  affections.  It  is  not  simply  a 
matter  of  discipline,  but  also  of  attachment  and 
interest.  The  sources  of  stirring  interest  for 
children  in  nature  study  are  so  abundant  as  to 
give  a  strong  and  steady  impulse  to  work  and 
will  effort,  Herbart  has  pointed  out  clearly  that 
three  of  the  great  fountains  of  interest  and  in- 
spiration spring  from  the  roots  of  nature  study  as 
the  sources  of  great  rivers  gush  from  the  foot  of 
mountains. 

1.  The  empirical  interest  so  universal  among 
children  deals  with  the  superficial  phases  of  na- 
ture's manifestations,  the  change,  variety,  and 
generally  pleasing  and  attractive  face  of  nature. 
There  is,  even  among  little  children,  a  native 
powerful  impulse  to  g*et  into  the  fresh  air,  the 
sunshine,  and  out-door  contact  with  nature. 

2.  The  speculative  interest  works  down  into 
causal  relations,  gets  beneath  the  surface  of 
phenomena,  and  reaches  out  over  broad  areas  in 
search  of  more  or  less  g-eneral  laws.     The  causal 


A  Road  to  the  Aim.  49 

idea  is  an  all-powerful  impulse  alike  for  children 
and  mature  scientists  in  science  study. 

3.  The  esthetic  phases  of  nature's  handiwork, 
the  beauty  of  form,  color,  and  proportion  in  the 
flower,  bird,  insect,  cloud,  mountain,  etc.,  furnish 
limitless  and  constant  opportunities  for  esthetic 
appreciation  and  culture.  Many  think  this  the 
choicest  part  of  nature  study 


50  Special  Method  in  Science. 


METHOD. 


HE  METHOD  of  teaching-  natural  science  is 
difficult  to  describe  or  explain.  The  teach- 
er's duty  in  this  case  is  somewhat  different 
from  what  it  is  in  other  studies.  The  book  of  na- 
ture lies  open  before  the  children  and  the  teacher 
is  to  lead  them  to  read  and  appreciate  it.  For 
most  persons  this  is  more  difficult  than  to  learn 
to  read  books.  To  gain  insight  into  nature  chil- 
dren must  learn  to  look  beneath  the  surface  and 
detect  the  working  forces  or  the  hidden  law.  Na- 
ture's secrets  lie  hidden  under  the  surface  of  phe- 
nomena and  children  must  learn  to  uncover  the 
facts  and  look  at  the  inner  workings. 

As  in  other  studies,  one  of  the  first  things  pre- 
liminary is  the  selection  of  important  type  topics 
which  are  to  be  fully  treated.  On  the  supposi- 
tion that  a  series  of  such  careful  selections  has 
been  made,  we  approach  the  question  of  method 
in  treatment. 

We  will  suppose  the  subject  chosen  is  the  red 
squirrel  or  fox  squirrel.  Let  us  first  see  clearly 
the  aim.  We  are  to  make  a  study  of  the  squirrel 
in  its  whole  life  history,  its  biography;  not  simply 
a  description  of  a  few  points  of  external  appear- 
ance, but  the  home  of  the  squirrel  in  the  woods. 


Method.  51 

its  family  life,  its  food  and  how  obtained,  its  or- 
j^ans  as  adapted  to  its  peculiar  surroundinfi^s,  its 
intellig'ence  and  instincts,  its  care  of  the  youngf, 
how  winter  is  spent,  where  the  food  is  stored,  its 
nest,  the  enemies  that  threaten  it  and  its  means 
of  escape,  its  structure  and  organs,  feet,  teeth, 
fur,  eyes,  stomach,  and  other  internal  organs. 
Also  its  uses  to  man.  The  comparison  of  the  red 
squirrel  with  other  squirrels  and  with  the  rabbit, 
beaver,  mouse,  and  other  rodents,  will  follow  this 
full  description.  This  comparison  will  bring  out 
the  type  character  and  throw  light  upon  a  whole 
group  of  animals.  Such  a  full  study  of  the  red 
squirrel  may  require  two  or  three  weeks  or  even 
longer,  but  in  every  lesson  we  are  turning  up  new 
soil,  getting  real  instruction,  enlarging  our  knowl- 
edge of  animal  life.  So  long  as  new  and  instruc- 
tive facts  are  being  unearthed,  the  subject  will 
not  prove  irksome  to  children.  The  concrete  de- 
tails, the  minutiae  of  life  and  habit  and  structure 
are  just  the  kind  of  thought  material  that  appeals 
to  children,  because  it  is  fresh,  real,  concrete, 
biographical.  All  the  facts  brought  to  light  in- 
terpret the  life  of  the  squirrel.  It  becomes  a  per- 
son with  needs  and  difficulties,  struggling  for  food 
and  home  and  safety,  and  endowed  with  organs 
for  these  special  purposes. 

The  study  of  a  squirrel  in  its  life  history  is 
really  an  examination  into  a  biography , it  isa  study 
of  animal  life  as  related  to  trees,  grasses,  climate, 


52  Special  Method  in  Science. 

other  animals,  birds  and  insects.  It  fits  into  its 
place  in  nature  as  well  as  a  leaf  fits  in  its  place 
on  the  tree.  Now,  would  it  prove  equally  or 
more  valuable  to  spend  the  same  amount  of  time 
not  upon  the  squirrel  alone,  but  upon  half  a  dozen 
of  the  rodents,  as  the  rat,  beaver,  mouse,  musk- 
rat,  rabbit,  ground  squirrel,  etc.?  The  study  of 
a  sing"le  kind  allows  an  inquiry  into  details  and 
causes  that  a  study  of  many  would  exclude.  Not 
only  are  the  details  attractive  and  concrete,  but 
they  show  how  to  look  into  a  subject,  how  to  in- 
vestig-ate,  how  to  trace  out  habit  and  structure 
and  their  effects.  A  sing-le  topic  treated  in  this 
particularized  fashion  gives  us  the  key  to  the 
method  of  observation.  By  studying"  one  prop- 
erly, we  learn  how  to  observe  and  trace  relations 
in  others.  Such  a  method  of  exhaustive  treat- 
ment destroys  at  the  start  the  natural  tendency 
toward  superficial  description  of  external  appear- 
ances. We  g"rasp  at  first  the  sig"nificant  problem 
of  this  animal's  life.  If  we  are  studying"  a  water 
bird,  we  desire  to  discover  how  it  is  adapted  to 
g"et  its  food  in  lakes  and  streams  and  to  make 
long"  flig"hts.  We  follow  it  in  its  migrations  and 
realize  its  conditions.  If  a  squirrel  is  studied,  we 
may  first  ask,  where  does  a  squirrel  choose  his  home 
and  build  his  nest?  If  a  catfish  is  the  subject  of 
investig"ation,  we  desire  to  interpret  his  life  in  the 
water  and  his  means  of  living  and  flourishing  there. 
Every  new  plant  or  animal  presents  a  new 


Method.  53 

problem,  not  simply  a  repetition  of  old  questions. 
Much  of  the  skill  and  success  of  teaching  de- 
pends upon  the  ability  to  approach  the  topics 
from  the  standpoint  of  significant  aims.  The  set- 
ting" up  of  problems  and  aims  that  will  cause  the 
children  to  think  and  investigate,  to  collect  and 
interpret  facts,  is  one  of  the  chief  demands  upon 
the  teacher. 

We  have  now  reached  the  point  where  we  must 
outline  a  method  of  treating*  important  topics. 
From  the  previous  discussion  it  is  clear  that  one 
of  the  underlying"  purposes  of  science  instruction 
is  to  lead  up,  through  particular  concrete  studies, 
to  the  understanding  of  general  principles  and 
laws,  and  to  the  ability  to  recognize  them  in  their 
usual  operations.  Stated  briefly,  children  should 
learn  to  understand  and  to  apply  general  truths. 
How  shall  children  be  taught  through  their  own 
self-activity  and  thought  power  to  approach,  mas- 
ter, and  recognize  about  them  the  general  laws  of 
nature? 

1  They  must  have  a  topic  under  consideration 
which  involves  or  typifies  a  general  truth. 

2.  An  aim  needs  to  be  set  up  which  points 
clearly  towards  this  general  truth,  and  while  it 
iavolves  difficulties  still  presents  an  interesting 
problem  for  solution.  The  setting  up  of  such 
significant  aims  pointing  toward  important  dis- 
coveries and  truths  is  a  strong  demand  for  skill 
and  insight  in  teaching.     It  points  out  clearly 


64  Special  Method  in  Science. 

the  road  to  be  traveled  in  the  search  for  truth, 
and  calls  out  the  self-activity  and  thought  power 
of  students.  In  an  oral  or  experimental  plan  of 
study,  the  setting-  up  of  such  guiding  aims,  both 
stimulates  the  children  and  points  toward  the 
most  important  truths  to  be  mastered.  In  an  oral 
method,  such  as  science  teaching  demands,  it  is 
possible  to  throw  children  upon  their  own  re- 
sources in  the  effort  to  reach  the  aims  set  up.  A 
text-book,  on  the  other  hand,  with  its  didactic 
method,  works  out  the  problems,  giving  the  solu- 
tion for  the  children  to  learn  In  science  work 
children  observe,  collect  facts,  trace  causes  and 
relations,  compare  and  draw  inferences,  for  the 
sake  of  conclusions  which  are  to  be  worked  out  by 
their  own  thinking  and  tested  by  facts  of  their 
own  seeing.  The  aim  set  up  should  be  particular, 
definite,  and  interesting,  rather  than  indefinite, 
general,  or  abstract.  The  truth  aimed  at  is  first 
worked  out  in  some  concrete  setting  and  after- 
wards seen  in  its  more  g-eneral  application. 

3.  While  any  important  topic  is  up  for  discus- 
sion, the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  study  it  so  as  to 
determine  the  facts.  Observe  it  as  a  whole  and 
in  its  parts  and  the  relation  of  the  parts  to  each 
other  and  to  the  whole  (analysis  and  synthesis). 
This  process  of  observation  or  study  presents  all 
the  facts  clearly  to  the  mind  in  their  concrete  set- 
ting. For  example,  in  the  study  of  the  wild  duck 
as  a  type  of  bird-life,  we  would  gather  the  facts 


Method.  .  55 

relating"  to  structure,  orj^^ans,  mode  of  life,  food, 
habits,  migrations,  nesting,  leng-th  of  life,  etc. 
This  is  the  opportunity  for  children  to  be  self- 
active,  to  observe,  to  gather  facts,  to  investigate. 
It  is  the  teacher's  chance  to  g^uide  wisely,  to  ques- 
tion, to  stimulate  and  not  to  be  over-hasty  in 
forcing-  conclusions.  This  is  the  place,  also,  for 
the  teacher  to  give  facts  which  are  beyond  the 
experience  or  reach  of  the  children,  and  to  sug- 
gest reference  books  for  their  study.  If  diagrams 
or  pictures,  or  other  illustrative  devices  are 
needed  to  bring  out  the  scientific  facts,  this  is 
their  fitting  place.  The  children  need  also  to 
verify  their  observations,  to  render  them  into  some 
definite  form  of  expression,  in  word-description 
or  drawings.  At  the  close  of  each  important  topic, 
a  careful  and  adequate  reproduction  of  the  knowl- 
edge g-ained  should  be  obtained  from  the  children. 
4.  The  typical  or  general  character  always  in- 
volved in  such  a  particular  study  is  never  seen 
or  realized  from  the  study  of  a  single  specimen. 
We  have  to  look  abroad  and  compare  the  struc- 
ture, habits,  and  life  of  other  wild  ducks,  and  of 
still  other  wild  birds,  and,  perhaps,  of  other 
animals,  before  we  can  draw  general  conclusions 
which  apply  to  large  classes.  In  order  to  reach 
g-eneral  truths  in  natural  science  it  is  necessary 
to  make  comparisons  of.  many  similar  and  con- 
trasted objects. 


56  Special  Method  in  Science. 

5.  A  g-en^ral  truth  or  law  may  properly  spring 
from  an  observation  and  comparison  of  a  number 
of  different  specimens  of  the  same  general  class. 
If,  for  example,  the  stomachs  of  a  large  number 
of  blackbirds  are  examined  by  the  scientist  at 
different  seasons,  and  while  showing  variety  of 
food  still  point  to  certain  foods  as  common  to 
all,  a  general  conclusion  can  be  drawn  in  regard 
to  the  food  eaten  by  these  birds.  It  is  import- 
ant that  these  general  conclusions  or  laws,  which 
are  the  results  of  observation  and  study,  should 
be  definitely  stated  in  accurate  form  and  fixed  in 
mind.  This  gives  us  our  law,  principle,  or  rule 
in  logical  or  scientific  form  so  far  as  the  pro- 
gress of  the  study  admits  completeness. 

6.  A  general  law  or  truth  is  not  sufficiently 
understood  and  mastered  by  working  it  out  induc- 
tively and  by  bringing  it  to  definite  and  accurate 
statement  for  memorizing.  For  example,  we  may 
illustrate  and  work  out  a  rule  in  grammar  for  the 
agreement  of  subject  and  predicate,  but  to  con- 
vert such  a  rule  into  habit  so  that  the  correct  form 
is  easily  used  when  needed,  calls  for  frequent  and 
varied  application  of  the  rule.  We  may  under- 
stand a  rule  in  arithmetic  but  many  varied  and 
more  or  less  complex  applications  are  necessary 
to  make  it  a  ready  guide  in  arithmetical  work.  In 
natural  science,  also,  the  applications  of  truth  and 
law  are  infinite  in  variation  and  complexity.  Every 
animal  is  adapted  to  its  environment,  with  struc- 


Method.  57 

ture  and  organs  suited  to  its  needs,  but  we  must 
notice  how  totally  different  these  adaptations  are 
in  fish,  fowl,  and  quadruped  before  we  understand 
the  scope  of  this  law,  and  are  ready  to  detect 
easily  its  variety  of  applications. 

Nature  study  calls  forth  two  kinds  of  observa- 
tion which,  though  opposite,  should  be  cultivated 
side  by  side.  First,  the  close  analytic  study  of 
one  important  topic  and  absorption  in  this  object 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  many.  It  may  lead  on  to 
a  succession  of  observations  following-  up  the 
early  history,  development,  and  relations  of  a 
single  organism.  Other  topics  are  shut  out  so  as 
to  concentrate  the  more  effectually  upon  this  one. 
Secondly,  nature  study  should  teach  us  to  ob- 
serve many  things,  to  have  our  eyes  wide  open, 
and  our  attention  receptive  to  a  variety  of  ob- 
jects, perhaps  to  all  the  important  things  that 
move  before  our  vision.  We  need,  therefore,  not 
only  to  concentrate  but  to  spread  our  observa- 
tions. Children  go  out  upon  science  excursions. 
The  purpose  of  the  excursion  should  be  centered 
upon  some  particular  kind  of  tree,  as  a  hickory, 
or  other  object.  Careful,  analytic  study  of  its 
parts  and  their  functions  is  necessary,  and  the 
close  relation  to  other  plants,  insects,  and  ani- 
mals should  be  noted.  But,  in  concentrating  at- 
tention upon  this  one  object,  should  they  close 
their  eyes  to  other  equally  valuable  things  in  their 
environment?     It  seems  really  advisable  to  kill 


58  Special  Method  in  Science. 

two  birds  with  one  stone.  Make  the  excursion 
count  for  both  kinds  of  development  in  observation . 

It  is  necessary  in  any  well-planned  excursion, 
which  partakes  of  the  character  of  real  instruc- 
tion, to  have  some  central  and  controlling  object 
for  study,  something"  which  supplies  the  aim  of 
the  excursion  and  determines  its  plan  and  move- 
ment. But,  as  we  go  on  our  way  toward  this  Ob- 
ject, or  in  search  of  it,  let  our  eyes  be  open  and 
watchful  for  the  multitude  of  interesting*  objects 
and  phenomena  that  may  meet  us  by  the  way.  In 
this  manner,  incidentally,  we  shall  gather  up  a 
larg-e  variety  of  the  most  valuable  experience  and 
not  be  turned  aside  seriously  in  our  hunt  for  the 
principal  g"ame. 

If,  however,  w^e  should  g-o  out  upon  an  excur- 
sion with  no  particular  aim  in  \iew%  no  particlar 
result  would  follow.  It  might  serve  well  enough 
for  recreation,  but  not  for  the  more  serious  work 
of  instruction. 

Among  the  devices  for  giving  clearness  and 
point  to  science  instruction  are  pictures,  dia- 
grams, illustrative  blackboard  sketches,  the  use 
of  instruments,  experiments,  and  what  may  be 
summed  up  as  the  originality,  versatility,  and  in- 
dustry of  the  teacher  in  inventing  graphic  meth- 
ods of  homely  illustration.  It  is  a  disadvantage 
to  both  teachers  and  pupils  to  have  too  much  ap- 
paratus and  manufactured  illustrative  material, 
though  some  things  are  indispensable.     In  spite 


Method.  59 

of  the  fundamental  realism  and  direct  contact 
with  objects  in  science  study,  there  are  still  a 
jjood  man}^  devices  necessary  to  objectify  and 
make  ^tangible  the  teachings  of  science.  Many 
things  can  not  be  seen,  but  must  be  reasoned  out. 
The  shape  and  movements  of  the  earth,  for  ex- 
ample, must  be  typically  illustrated.  The  atomic 
theory  has  to  be  thought  rather  than  seen;  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  (in  spite  of  the  frog's  foot 
and  microscope)  must  be  explained  by  diagram  or 
manikin.  At  almost  every  step  our  thought  goes 
farther  than  our  sight,  and  yet  needs  constantly 
to  be  checked  up  and  verified  by  the  actual. 

At  this  point  an  interesting  question  comes 
up  as  to  the  value  of  the  imagination  in  science 
studies.  The  tendency  to  exercise  the  imagina 
tion  in  science  is  strong  in  all  grades,  from  the 
primary  school  up  through  the  university.  Pri- 
mary teachers,  especially,  are  full  of  imaginative 
suggestion  to  the  children,  and  the  children  them- 
selves take  to  the  imaginative  forms  of  thought  as 
a  duck  to  water.  The  baby  seed  in  its  cradle  is 
waiting  for  the  warm  sunlight  to  call  it  up  above 
the  ground.  The  pajm  and  mamma  bird  take  care 
of  their  little  children.  The  pussy-willow  has  its 
warm  fur  coat  in  the  chill  of  early  springtime. 
The  snow  is  a  blanket  that  covers  up  the  flowers 
in  winter.  A  child  thought  the  half  moon  was 
only  half  buttoned  into  the  sky.  Such  fanciful 
suggestions  are  innumerable  in  the  instruction  of 


60  Special  Method  in  Science. 

children.  Some  of  the  strict-construction  scien- 
tists are  very  much  opposed  to  this  imaginative 
tendency  in  science  work.  The  notion  is  that  sci- 
ence is,  first  of  all,  valuable  for  its  adherence  to 
the  real,  for  its  exclusion  of  the  fancy.  Supersti- 
tion, j^-uessing",  hearsay,  careless  inference,  fairy 
tale,  are  all  shut  out,  and  we  are  kept  close  to 
the  unadorned,  incontestable  facts— the  things 
admitting  of  no  equivocation.  Natural  science  is, 
of  all  studies,  the  one  to  free  us  from  superstition 
and  convince  us  of  the  all-prevalence  of  law. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  children,  primary 
teachers,  and  poets  refuse  to  be  bound  down  to 
the  plain  realities.  In  order  to  understand  nature 
they  fall  back  upon  the  aid  of  the  imagination. 
In  the  fall  they  think  of  the  tree  as  wrapping  r,p 
its  tender  buds  in  scales;  a  caterpiller  was  de- 
scribed by  a  three-year-old  girl  as  a  worm  with  a 
fur  coat  on.  Teachers  who  have  to  deal  with 
children  very  easily  fall  into  such  forms  of  de- 
scription as  are  easily  understood  by  the  children. 
But  our  poets  also,  who  know  how  to  give  dis 
tinctness  and  point  to  truth,  are  full  of  such 
imaginative  touches. 

"Every  clod  feels  a  stir  of  mig"ht, 

An  instinct  within  it  that  reaches  and  towers, 
And  groping-  blindly  above  it  for  light, 

Climbs  to  a  soul  in  the  grass  and  the  flowers." 


Method.  61 

"Laufjhed  the  brook  for  my  delight, 
Through  the  day  and  through  the  night, 
Whispering  at  the  garden  wall, 
Talked  with  me  from  fall  to  fall." 

"The  little  brook  heard  it  and  built  a  roof, 
'Neath  which  he  housed  him  winter  proof, 
All  night  by  the  white  stars'  frosty  gleams, 
He  groined  his  arches  and  matched  his  beams." 

It  would  be  impossible  to  quote  ten  lines  of  the 
best  poetry  of  nature  without  just  such  beautiful 
imaginative  touches. 

One  of  the  professors  of  natural  science  in  a 
larj^e  university,  in  lecturing  before  a  body  of 
1.000  teachers,  asserted  "that  parents,  teachers, 
writers,  and  educators  had  combined  of  late  into 
a  syndicate  for  teaching  children  lies."  This  re- 
fers directly  to  the  use  of  the  imagination  in  nature 
studies  so  prevalent,  especially  among  primary 
teachers.  The  question  is  whether  the  imagina- 
tion can  be  dispensed  with  in  nature  study,  either 
by  the  child  or  bythe  trained  scientist.  The  same 
lecturer  spent  an  hour  with  his  students  describing 
the  different  theories  of  heredity.  The  question 
may  be  pertinently  asked,  What  is  such  a  theory? 
And  the  necessary  reply  is  that  a  theory  is  not  a 
fact  nor  a  collection  of  facts  of  observation,  but 
an  effort  of  the  scientist,  through  his  reason  and 
imagination,  to  give  meaning  and  unity  to  the 
facts.  Theories  are  often  found  to  be  false,  but 
the  effort  to  test  them  and  to  prove  their  falsity 


62  Special  Method  in  Sciaicc. 

leads  closer  to  the  truth.  It  is  by  setting-  up  and 
testing-  hypotheses  that  the  scientist  makes  dis- 
coveries. 

To  shut  out  the  use  of  imagination  in  nature 
study  is  doing  violence  to  a  child's  nature,  for  all 
his  thoughts  naturally  assume  imaginative  forms 
in  early  years.  But  how  flat  and  insipid  would 
any  nature  study  be  which  tries  to  bind  down  -a 
child's  thought  to  what  is  manifest  to  the  senses! 
He  can't  see  the  plant  g-row.  He  only  sees  that 
changes  have  taken  place  and  reason  and  imagi- 
nation must  help  him  to  the  rest.  It  is  on  the 
poetic  and  esthetic  side  that  nature  makes  its 
strongest  appeal  to  children.  Many  of  the  great- 
est poets  have  been  the  closest  and  most  faitliful 
observers  of  nature.  Goethe,  the  Shakespeare  of 
the  Germans,  ranked  among-  the  greatest  scien- 
tists. Emerson,  Burroughs,  Thoreau,  and  Bryant 
are  poets  of  nature,  and  observers  also  in  the  sense 
in  which  we  wish  to  see  children  trained  to  ob- 
serve. 

It  is  certainly  the  business  of  nature  study  to 
teach  children  to  observe  accurately  and  to  have 
an  honest  respect  for  the  facts,  but  in  reaching 
forward  to  the  laws  and  unities,  in  interpreting 
the  phenomena  of  organic  and  of  inorganic  mat- 
ter, the  imagination  is  indispensable.  Facts  and 
observations  are  often  only  stepping- stones  to  the 
child's  thoughts,  the  scaffolding  by  which  it  con- 
structs the  higher  forms.     Figures  of  speech  and 


Method.  63 

poetic  analogies,  which  both  teachers  and  pupils 
use  so  often  are  the  very  soul  of  good  instruction 
in  natural  science  as  well  as  in  other  studies.  As 
Burroughs  studies  the  birds,  his  imagination  puts 
a  human  sympathy  into  their  lives  which  is  better 
for  children  tlian  the  facts  and  skins  delivered  to 
us  by  the  dissecting  knife  and  the  taxidermist's 
skill.  Science  study  is  something  more  than  a 
collection  of  lifeless  memoranda. 

Some  primary  teachers  seem  to  outdo  the 
children  in  finding  sentimental  and  fanciful  re- 
semblances in  nature.  They  deal  in  baby-talk 
and  strain  after  impersonations  and  fanciful 
analogies.  This  is  only  a  good  thing  carried  to  a 
ludicrous  extreme.  But  any  one  who  walks  with 
children  among  birds  and  trees  and  butterflies 
will  be  taught  to  appreciate  their  impersonations 
and  fanciful  descriptions,  for  these  are  based 
upon  the  apperceiving  experiences  of  the  chil- 
dren. The  exact  technical  terms  of  science  are 
unknown  to  the  children  and  should  not  be 
forced  too  soon  upon  them.  They  describe  with 
much  originality  and  acuteness  and  nearly 
always  in  figurative  phrases. 

Professor  Tyndall,  in  his  essay  on  the  Scien- 
tific use  of  the  Imagination,  treats  this  subject 
as  follows:  "How,  then,  are  those  hidden  things 
to  be  revealed?  How,  for  exami)le,  are  we  to  lay 
hold  of  the  physical  basis  of  light,  since,  like 
that  of  life   itself,  it   lies  entirely  without  the 


64  Special  Method  in  Science. 

domaiu  of  the  senses?  Now,  philosophers  may 
be  ri^ht  in  affirming  that  we  cannot  transcend 
experience.  But  we  can,  at  all  events,  carry  it  a 
long  way  from  its  origin.  We  can  also  magnify, 
diminish,  qualify,  and  combine  experiences,  so  as 
to  render  them  fit  for  services  entirely  new.  We 
are  gifted  with  the  power  of  imagination,  com- 
bining what  the  Germans  call  Arischauungsgabe 
and  Einbildungskraft,  and  by  this  power,  w^e  can 
lighten  the  darkness  which  surrounds  the  world 
of  the  senses. 

''There  are  tories  even  in  science  who  regard 
imagination  as  a  faculty  to  be  feared  and  avoided 
rather  than  employed.  They  had  observed  its 
action  in  weak  vessels,  and  were  unduly  im- 
pressed by  its  disasters.  But  they  might  with 
equal  justice  point  to  exploded  boilers  as  an 
argument  against  the  use  of  steam.  Bounded 
and  conditioned  by  co-operant  reason,  imagina- 
tion becomes  the  mightiest  instrument  of  the 
physical  discoverer.  Newton's  passage  'From  a 
Falling  Apple  to  a  Falling  Moon,'  was  a  leap  of 
the  imagination.  When  William  Thomson  tries 
to  place  the  ultimate  particles  of  matter  between 
his  compass  points  and  to  apply  to  them  a  scale 
of  millimeters,  it  is  an  exercise  of  the  imagina- 
tion. And  in  much  that  has  been  recently  said 
about  protoplasm  and  life  we  have  the  out- 
goings of  the  imagination,  guided  and  controlled 
by   the    known   analogies   of   science.      In  fact, 


Method.  65 

without  this  power  our  knowledge  of  nature  would 
be  a  mere  tabulation  of  coexistences  and  se- 
quences. We  should  still  believe  in  the  succession 
of  day  and  night,  of  summer  and  winter;  but  the 
soul  of  force  would  be  dislodged  from  our  uni- 
verse; causal  relations  would  disappear,  and  with 
them  that  science  which  is  now  binding  the  parts 
of  nature  to  an  organic  whole"  (Half  Hours  with 
Modern  Scientists,  p.  250). 


Special  Method  in  Science. 


BOOKS  7\S  AN  AID  TO  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


fERHAPS  the  chief  difficulty  in  the  way  of 
good  science  work  in  the  grades  is  the 
poverty  of  science  knowledge  on  the  part 
of  teachers.  It  is  not  a  fault  with  which  teachers 
are  to  be  upbraided  so  much  as  a  natural  result  of 
our  usual  course  of  study  in  the  past.  Even  what 
science  knowledge  teachers  have  acquired  in  high 
schools  and  other  advanced  courses  of  study  is 
not  only  inadequate  but  often  unsuitable  to  the 
instruction  of  children.  In  all  the  higher  schools 
there  is,  or  has  been,  a  strong  tendency  to  system 
and  classification,  and  not  sufficient  detailed  study 
of  particular  forms  and  life  histories,  such  as 
arouse  the  interest  and  observation  of  children. 
The  usual  text-books  in  natural  science  are  ex- 
tremely inadequate  to  prepare  teachers  for  the  in- 
struction of  children.  They  do  not  contain  the 
right  sort  of  material  to  serve  as  topics  in  the 
grades,  even  if  the  work  is  experimental  or  in 
field  excursions. 

Books  of  science  are  very  important  in  the 
training  and  preparation  of  teachers  for  their 
work  in  classes.  They  do  not  take  the  place  of 
personal  observation,  experiment,  excursion,  use 
of  instruments,  collections,  in  short,  direct  con- 


Books  as  An  Aid  to  Science  Teaching.  67 

tact  with  nature  in  a  multitude  of  ways;  but  books 
are  a  great  help  to  teachers  in  guiding  their  ob. 
servations  and  in  suggesting  important  centers 
and  ways  of  observation.  From  books  the  teach- 
ers get  direct  stimulus  and  suggestion  w^here  to 
look  and  what  to  look  for,  and  then  they  have 
sufficient  start  in  the  right  direction  to  be  left  to 
their  own  resources. 

The  different  books  heljjful  to  teachers'  work 
may  be  classilied  as  follows: 

1.  Text-books  and  classified  books  of  science. 

2.  The  masterpieces  of  scientific  literature,  as 
works  of  Darwin,  Huxley,  etc. 

8.  Monographs  on  science  topics  which  give 
much  fuller  treatment  to  important  type  studies 
than  text-books,  e.  (/.,  Scudder's  Butterfly. 

4.  Books  of  inspiration  for  nature  study,  as  for 
example,  Burroughs's  works. 

5.  Books  of  professional  character  discussing 
the  principles  and  methods  of  science  teaching, 
as  for  example,  Jackman's  Nature  Study. 

6.  Science  readers  for  the  grades,  primarily 
designed  for  children,  but  containing  often  mate- 
rials helpful  to  teachers. 

These  six  classes  of  books  are  helpful  to 
teachers  in  different  ways,  somewhat  as  follows: 

1.  The  text-books  give  the  scientific  or  class- 
ified form  in  its  general  outlines.  Through  his 
previous  studies  they  are  familiar  to  the  teacher 
and  serve  as  a  basis  for  his  own  systematic  grasp 


68  Special  Method  in  Science. 

of  his  subject.  These  are  excellent  reference 
books  and  serve  as  a  standard  for  a  final  group- 
ing" of  observations. 

2.  By  means  of  the  masterpieces  of  scientific 
literature  we  are  able  to  keep  abreast  of  scientific 
thought.  The  schoolmaster  must  not  fall  far 
behind  the  more  recent  developments  of  scientific 
knowledge.  Otherwise  he  will  be  teaching  what 
scientists  regard  as  exploded  theories.  Moreover, 
the  great  writers  like  Darwin,  Agassiz,  Gray, 
Tyndall,  Haeckel,  Lyell,  and  their  like  are  the 
most  stimulating  and  broad-minded  in  their  influ- 
ence. It  is  of  very  great  advantage  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  masters  of  any  science. 

3.  Perhaps  the  most  helpful  books  to  teach- 
ers are  the  monographs  on  particular  topics. 
They  alone  make  it  possible  for  the  teacher  to 
equip  himself  thoroughly  for  the  teaching  of  par- 
ticular topics. 

We  have  by  far  too  few  good  monographs. 
Such  are: 

"The  Oak,"  by  H.  Marshall  Ward.  D.  Appleton  &  Co., 
New  York. 

"Spiders,  Their  Structures  and  Habits,"  by  J.  H.  Emer- 
ton.     S.  E.  Cassino,  Boston. 

"Sunshine,"  by  Amy  Johnson.     Macmillan  &  Co. 

"The  Cray  Fish,"  by  Huxley.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

"Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps,"  by  Sir  John  Lubbock.  D.  Ap- 
pleton &  Co. 

"On  Forms  of  Water,"  by  John  Tyndall.  D.  Appleton 
&Co, 


BooJcs  as  An  Aid  to  Science  Teaching.  60 

"The  Story  of  the  Hills,"  by  H.  H.  Hutchinson.     Mac- 
millan  &  Co. 

"Romance  of  the  Insect  World,"  by  L.  N.  Badenoch. 
Macmillan  &  Co. 

Boys  and  Girls  in  Biology.*'    Stevenson.     D.  Appleton 
&Co. 

"Home  Studies  in  Nature."  Treat.  American  Book  Co. 

"A  Year  with  the  Trees."    Flag"g".     Educational  Pub- 
lishing Co. 

"The  Great  World's  Farm."   Gaye.    Seeley  &  Co.,  Lon- 
don and  Boston. 

"Simple  Experiments  for  the  School  Room."  WoodhuU. 
E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co.,  New  York. 

"Starland,"  by  Robert  S.  Ball.     Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 

"The  Oyster,  Clam,  and  Other  Common  Molusks."    Hy- 
att.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

"Worms  and  Crustacea."    Hyatt.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

"The  Builders  of  the  Sea."    Dodd,    Mead  &  Co.,  New 
York. 

"Seaside  Studies  in  Natural  History."  Agassiz.  Jas.  R. 
Osgood  &  Co.,  Boston. 

"Moths  and  Butterflies."  Ballard.  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons, 
New  York. 

"Our  Common  Insects."    Packard.     Estes  &  Laureat, 
Boston. 

"Insecta."    Hyatt.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

"Life  and  Her  Children."  Buckley.   D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

"Jelly  Fishes,  Star  Fishes,  and  Sea  Urchins."  Romanes. 
D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

"Vegetable  Mould  and  Earthworm."  Darwin.   D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co. 

"Fermentation  of  Vegetable  Mould."  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

"The  Sun."    Young.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
'    "The  Fairy  Land  of  Science."    A.  B.  Buckley.    D.  Ap- 
pleton &  Co. 

"Our  Native  Ferns  and  their  Allies."    Underwood. 


70  Special  Method  in  Science. 

"Treesof  the  Northern  United  States."  Apgar.  Ameri- 
can Book  Co. 

"Wonders  of  Plant  Life."  Herrick.  G.  P.  Putnam's 
Sons. 

"Chapters  in  Modern  Botany."    P.  Geddes.    Chas.  Scrib- 
ner's  Sons. 

"Climbing-  Plants."     Darwin.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

"Butterflies."    Scudder.     Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York. 

"Science  for  All."  Five  volumes.  Cassell.  Petter,  Gal- 
pire  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Science  For  All  is  a  cyclopaedia  of  natural  science,  in 
five  volumes,  containing-  many  excellent  chapters  or  mono- 
g-raphs  on  special  topics. 

"A  Naturalist's  Rambles  About  Home."  Abbott.    D.  Ap- 
pleton &,  Co. 

"Homes  Without  hands."    Wood.    Longmans  &  Co. 

"The  Weather."  Abercromby.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New 
York. 

"The  Horse."    Flower.     D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York, 

"Wild  Beasts."  Porter.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New 
York. 

"Volcanoes."    Judd.     D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 

"The  Jack  Rabbits  of  the  U.  S.,"  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washing-ton,  D.C. 

"Dust  and  Its  Dangers."  Prudden.  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

"The  Geological  Story  Briefly  Told."  Dana.  Ivison, 
Blakeman  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

"Agassiz's  Geological  Sketches."  James  R.  Osgood  & 
Co.,  Boston. 

"A  Song  of  Life."  Morley.  A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co.,  Chi- 
cago 

"Science  Sketches."  Jordan.  A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co., 
Chicago. 

It  is  this  kind  of  detailed  information  which 
may  stimulate  the  teacher  to  the  most  careful  ob- 


Books  as  An  Aid  to  Science  Teaching.  71 

servations  on  his  own  part,  and  furnish  him  with 
a  rich  fund  of  accurate  scientific  knowledge.  With 
children  especially,  this  fullness  of  concrete  detail 
is  indispensable  to  insight  and  interest.  It  is  ex- 
ceedingly desirable  that  good,  cheap  monographs 
be  multiplied  upon  all  the  important  topics  of 
natural  science,  and  then  teachers  will  be  able 
in  large  measure  to  help  themselves.  They  do  not 
take  the  place  of  observation,  but  greatly  as- 
sist it. 

4.  Among  the  best  books  for  both  teachers  and 
pupils  are  those  of  such  writers  as  Burroughs  and 
Thoreau,  who  create  a  great  love  for  nature  in 
plant,  animal,  insect,  etc.,  and  at  the  same  time 
suggest  the  closest  methods  of  observation.  Bur- 
roughs's  "Birds  and  Bees"  is  now  quite  commonly 
used  as  a  reader  in  many  schools.  The  classic 
form  of  these  writers  adds  much  to  the  charm  of 
their  studies.  But  it  need  not  be  supposed  that 
classic  form  is  any  substitute  for  the  true  scientific 
spirit,  but  only  the  best  channel  through  which 
the  scientific  spirit  may  flow.  We  have  a  large 
number  of  charming  books,  which  breathe  the 
spirit  of  the  most  sympathetic  and  appreciative 
study  of  birds  and  insects  and  plants  in  the  open 
air.    Such  is 

Burroughs's  "Wake  Robin."     Houghton,  MiflQin  &  Co. 
Thoreau's  "Succession  of  Forest  Trees,"  and  "Wild  Ap- 
ples."   Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Burroughs's  "Sharp  Eyes."    Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 


72  Special  Method  in  Science. 

"Birds  Through  an  Opera  Glass,"  by  Florence  Merriam. 
Houg-hton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

"Madam  How  and  Lady  Why."    Kingsley.    Macmillan. 

King-sley's  "Water^Babies."    Ginn  &  Co. 

"Up  and  Down  the  Brooks,"  by  Mary  Bamford.  Hough- 
ton, Mifflin  &  Co. 

"Inmates  of  My  House  and  Garden,"  by  Mrs.  Brightwen. 
Macmillan, 

"The  Stories  of  the  Trees,"  by  Mrs.  Dyson.  Thos.  Nel- 
son &  Sons,  N.  Y. 

Winchell's  "Geological  Excursions."  S.  C.  Griggs,  Chi- 
cago. 

"InBirdland"and"Birddom."  Keyser.   A.  C.  McClurg. 

"The  Foot-Path  Way."  Bradford  Torrey.  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co. 

"Little  Brothers  of  the  Air."  Olive  Thorne  Miller. 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

"The  Bird  Lover  in  the  West."  Olive  Thorne  Miller. 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

These  books  are  good  companions  for  those 
who  wish  to  study  nature  in  the  open  air.  They 
are  especially  valuable  for  the  moral  and  esthetic 
attitude  of  mind  that  they  cultivate,  for  the  hu- 
manizing" and  protecting"  g"entleness  with  which 
they  observe  animal  and  plant  life.  This  coun- 
teracts the  naturally  thoug"htless,  wasteful,  and 
destructive  habits  of  children.  The  tree  or  a 
flowering"  plant  has  a  life  not  to  be  wantonly 
destroyed.  The  robins  and  sparrows  have  anxieties 
and  rights  which  the  school-boy  should  respect. 
The  esthetic  sense,  the  appreciation  of  delicacy 
and  beauty  of  form  and  color  and  motion  in  the 
things  of  nature,  the  whole   esthetic  taste   and 


Books  as  An  Aid  to  Science  Teaching.  73 

appreciation,  are  matters  of  slow  development 
and  some  of  the  classic  writers  just  mentioned  are 
well  able  to  open  our  eyes  to  these  best  influences 
of  nature  study. 

5.  Teachers  also  need  professional  books 
which  deal  wisely  with  the  problems  and  diffi- 
culties of  science  instruction.  So  rapid  has  been 
the  development  of  science  teaching-  in  late  years 
that  we  have  but  few  manuals  of  science  teach  in  fj 
that  are  abreast  of  the  times. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  we  shall  soon  have  a 
number  of  good  hand-books  of  this  sort  for 
teachers: 

Jactman's  "Nature  Study."  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New 
York. 

"An  Outline  of  Nature  Study,"  by  Charles  B.  Scott,  Os- 
weg^o,  N.  Y. 

"Directions  for  Teaching-  Geology,"  by  Shaler. 

"Systematic  Science  Teaching."  Howe.  D.  Appleton 
&Co. 

"Number  Work  and  Nature  Study."  Jackman.  Pub- 
lished by  the  author. 

"Moral  Teaching-  of  Science."  Buckley.  D.  Appleton 
&Co. 

"A  Short  History  of  Natural  Science."  A.  B.  Buckley. 
D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

"The  Advance  of  Science  in  the  Last  Half  Century." 
Huxley.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

"Science  Teaching  in  the  Schools."  W.  N.  Rice.  D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co. 

"One  Hundred  Lessons  in  Nature  Study."  Payne.  E. 
L.  Kellogg  &  Co.,  New  York. 

"Elementary  Biology."    Boyer.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 


74  Special  Method  in  Science. 

"First  Steps  in  Scientific  Knowledg-e.''  Paul  Bert.  J. 
B.  Lippincott  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. 

"Twenty-five  Years  of  Scientific  Prog-ress."  W.  N.  Pace. 
J.  Y.  Crowell&Co.,  N.  Y. 

"Scientific  Culture  and  Other  Essays."  J.  P.  Cooke. 
D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

"Recreations  in  Botany."  Caroline  Creevey.  Harper 
Brothers. 

Ag-assiz's  "Methods  of  Study  in  Natural  History."  James 
R.  Osg-ood  &  Co.,  Boston. 

"Microscopy  for  Beginners."  A.  C.  Stokes.  Harper  & 
Brothers,  N.  Y. 

"Birds  Nesting-."  Ernest  Ingersoll.  George  A.  Bates, 
Salem. 

"The  Naturalist's  Assistant."  J.  S.  Kingsley.  S.E.  Cas- 
sino,  Boston. 

"The  Naturalist's  Guide."  C.  J.  Maynard.  S.  E.  Cassino 
Boston. 

The  above  illustrate  what  is  needed.  Courses 
of  nature  study  must  spring  out  of  these  discussions 
of  the  aim,  selection  of  topics,  and  method  of  treat- 
ment of  the  same  in  different  g^rades.  The  vast  ex- 
tent of  the  scientific  field,  the  close  relation  of 
science  topics  to  other  studies,  and  the  scientific 
and  pedag-og"ical  method  of  treatment,  are  all 
deeply  involved  in  this  discussion,  and  the  next 
few  years  will  doubtless  see  very  great  progress 
in  this  field  of  pedagogic  study  and  experiment. 

6.  In  the  last  few  years  a  large  number  of  sci- 
ence readers  for  use  in  the  grades  for  supplemen- 
tary reading  has  been  offered  to  the  schools  by 
different  publishers,  such  as: 


Books  as  An  Aid  to  Science  Teaching.  75 

"Seaside  and  Wayside,"  Nos.  1  to  4.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co* 

"The  Child's  Book  of  Nature,"  in  three  parts.  Hooker. 
Harper  &  Brothers. 

"A  Botany  Reader,"  two  parts.    Ginn  &  Co. 

"My  Saturday  with  a  Bird  Class."    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

"Nature  Stories  for  Young-  Readers,"  two  parts.  D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co. 

"Chapters  on  Plant  Life."    American  Book  Co. 

"Brooks  and  Brook  Basins."    D.  C.  Heath  «fe  Co. 

"Little  People  and  their  Homes."  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons. 

"Natural  History  Readers."  Wood.  Boston  School  Sup- 
ply Co. 

"Wing's  and  Fins,"  "Feathers  and  Fur."  American  Book 
Co. 

"Boys  and  Girls  in  Biology."    D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

"Little  Nature  Studies  for  Little  People." 

"Animal  Memoirs,"  in  two  parts.   Ivison,  Blakeman  Co. 

"The  Story  of  our  Continent."    Shaler.    Ginn  &  Co. 

"Glimpses  of  the  Animate  World."  Johonnot.  Ameri- 
can Book  Co. 

And  many  others  may  be  added. 

It  is  a  serious  question  to  determine  just  what 
is  the  value  of  these  science  readers.  It  should 
first  of  all  be  clearly  understood  that  they  do  not 
take  the  place  of  observation  and  real  nature 
study.  They  should  follow  rather  than  precede 
the  oral  lessons,  excursions,  collections,  and  class 
study.  After  children  have  been  introduced  by 
observation  and  class  instruction  to  important 
topics  it  may  prove  valuable  to  use  the  sui)j)le- 
mentary  readers  to  enlarj^e  and  define  more 
closely  their  scientific  knowledge.     Science  read- 


76  Special  Method  in  Science. 

ers,  however,  are  to  be  regarded  as  books  of  in- 
struction for  purely  supplementary  and  private 
reading-,  rather  than  as  text  books  for  regular 
reading"  exercises.  The  regular  reading  lessons 
should  be  devoted  to  the  appreciative  study  and 
rendering  of  American  and  English  classics. 
Books  of  information,  whether  from  science,  his- 
tory, or  geography,  are  not  good  enough  to  serve 
for  the  purpose  of  the  standard  reading  exercises. 
Many  of  the  science  readers,  however,  will  prove 
quite  helpful  to  teachers  in  supplying  them  with 
a  part,  at  least,  of  the  necessary  scientific  knowl- 
edge. Larger,  more  complete  scientific  treatises, 
are,  of  course,  better;  but  most  teachers  have 
neither  the  time  nor  the  money  to  spend  upon  the 
larger,  complete  books  of  science. 


The  Selection  of  Topics.  77 


THE  SELECTION  OE  TOPICS. 


IN  SELECTING  and  arranging-  the  science  top- 
ics for  the  first  four  grades  the  guiding  ideas 
kept  in  mind  are  as  follows: 

1.  Living  animals  and  plants  are  observed. 
Not  only  the  appearance,  habits,  and  organs,  but 
the  whole  life  history  is,  at  least,  drawn  upon. 

2.  Objects  taken  from  the  home  neighborhood 
are  deemed  the  best. 

3.  The  season  of  the  year  will  determine  the 
time  and  opportunity  for  treating  many  topics. 

4.  Science  topics  prominently  suggested  by 
the  stories,  myths,  reading,  or  geography  lessons 
may  be  found  well  suited  to  the  requirements  of 
the  science  work. 

5.  The  best  types  should  be  chosen,  not  for  the 
purpose  of  premature  classification,  but  because 
they  furnish  just  as  good  concrete  material  for 
observation,  and  they  also  serve  later  as  a  basis 
for  good  comparison  and  simple  grouping  into 
classes. 

6.  There  is  no  intent  to  limit  the  observations 
of  children  to  this  list  of  objects,  but  to  suggest 
a  series  of  important  illustrative  topics  which  may 
give  definite  j)lan  and  purpose  to  regular  observa- 
tion.    Upon  excursions  and  in  discussions  many 


78  Special  Method  in  Science. 

other  science  objects  may  be  brought  iii  and 
treated  more  or  less  fully.  Such  a  course  of  study 
can  be  only  suggestive,  for  no  two  neighborhoods 
are  the  same,  and  probably  the  same  teacher  in 
one  locality  would  be  inclined  to  vary  his  topics 
from  year  to  year. 


Outline  of  Topics  for  First  Grade. 


OUTLINE  or  TOPICS  TOR  riRST  GRADE. 


FALL  TERM. 

f  REPARATION  of  familiar  trees  bearing 
large  buds,  for  winter  rest,  e.  g.  hickory, 
buckeye,  cotton  wood,  and  balm  of  Gilead. 
This  study  is  associated  with  gathering  of  autumn 
leaves. 

Life  histories  of  dog  and  cow. 

Sheep — compare  with  cow. 

Fox  or  gray  squirrel — its  home  life. 

Rabbit  and  mouse — compare  with  fox  squirrel. 

WINTER  TERM. 

Winter  study  of  Austrian  pine- — a  type  of  ever- 
green trees. 

Scotch  pine,  hemlock,  and  Norway  spruce — 
compare  with  Austrian  pine. 

Life  histories  of  horse  and  chicken.  The 
chicken  studied  as  type  of  birds. 

English  sparrow  and  chickadee — Compare  with 
chicken. 

Life  of  the  cat. 

SPRING  TERM. 

Plant  lima  beans,  sweet  peas,  and  nasturtium 
seeds.     Watch  development. 

Spring  study  of  evergreen  trees  studied  in  the 
winter. 


80  Special  Method  in  Science. 

Robin  and  red-headed  woodpecker. 

Buds,  blossoms,  and  fruit  of  apple,  cherry,  and 
plum  trees. 

Duck — type  of  water  birds. 

Goose.     Compare  with  duck. 

(The  children  draw  the  objects  studied.) 

References. — For  study  of  quadrupeds  see  Dr. 
Lockwood's  "Animal  Memoirs,"  Part  I. 

For  special  study  of  gnawers  see  Standard 
Natural  History,  pp.  68-133;  Seaside  and  Way- 
side IV;  Johonnot's  "Feathers  and  Fur, "  Johon- 
not's  "Claws  and  Hoofs,"  Wood's  "Homes  Without 
Hands,"  "A  Naturalist's  Rambles  About  Home," 
Mammals  of  North  America  (Baird). 

For  study  of  trees  see  Mrs.  Dyson's  "Stories 
of  the  Trees,"  Apgar's  "Trees  of  Northern  United 
States,"  Gray's  "Structural  Botany,"  and  Gray's 
"Physiological  Botany." 

For  study  of  chicken  see  Dr. Lockwood's  "Ani- 
mal Memoirs,"  Part  II. 

For  study  of  English  sparrow  see  Olive  Thorne 
Millers  "A  Bird  Lover  in  the  West';'  John  Bur- 
roughs's  "Locusts  and  Wild  Honey,"  "Pepacton," 
"Riverby,"  and  "Signs  and  Seasons;"  Leander 
Keyser's  "Birddom;"  Parkhurst's  "Birds'  Calen- 
dar;" and  "The  English  Sparrow,"  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

For  study  of  robin  see  Dr.  Lockwood's  "Ani- 
mal Memoirs"  II;  Parkhurst's  "Birds'  Calendar;" 
Torrey's  "Footpath  Way"  and  "Birds  in  the  Bush;" 


Outline  of  Topics  for  First  Grade.  81 

Miller's  "Little  Brothers  of  the  Air"  and  "A  Bird 
Lover  in  the  West;"  Burroug-hs's  "Wake  Robin," 
"Riverby,"  "Pepacton;"  Keyser's  Birddom"  and 
"In  Bird  Land;"  "The  Youths'  Companion  Sup- 
plementary Reading"  Book, "  No.  7. 

For  study  of  chickadee  see  Burroughs's  "Wake 
Robin,"  "Riverby,"  and  "Sig-ns  and  Seasons;" 
Keyser's  "Birddom"  and  "In  Bird  Land;"  Torrey's 
"Birds  in  the  Bush"  and  "Footpath  Way;"  and 
"Birds'  Calendar." 

For  study  of  red-headed  woodpecker,  see  "Lit- 
tle Brothers  of  the  Air;"  "A  Bird  Lover  in  the 
West;"  "Birddom;"  "In  Bird  Land;"  "Birds  in 
the  Bush;"  "Wake  Robin;"  "Animal  Memoirs," 
Part  II;  Bulletin  7  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture; "Farmer's  Bulletin,"  54  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture;  and  Youth's  Companion  Supplemen- 
tary Reader  No.  7. 

For  study  of  duck  see  Johonnot's  "Feathers 
and  Fur." 

For  study  of  seeds  and  flowers  see  Jane  New- 
ell's  Botany;  Goodale's  "Concerning  a  Few  Com- 
mon Plants;"  and  Margaret  Morley's  Seed  Babies, - 
*Flowers  and  their  Friends, "  and  "A  Few  Famil" 
iar  Flowers." 


82  Special  Method  in  Science, 


OUTLINE  or  TOPICS  TOR  SECOND  GRSDE. 


PALL  TERn. 


Continue  study  of  llma  bean,  sweet  pea,  and 
nasturtium. 

Finish  study  of  apples  and  plums  begun 
the  previous  spring*. 

Metamorphosis  of  cabbage  butterfly.  If  taken 
at  the  very  beginning  of  the  term  the  eggs  may 
be  found  and  all  changes  watched  until  the  but- 
terfly comes  out. 

Metamorphosis  of  milk-weed  caterpillars  and 
other  caterpillars  which  the  children  may  find. 

Grapes  and  raisins  (study  of  the  ripening  grapes 
on  the  vine). 

Pumpkins,  squash,  and  melons  studied  from 
flower  to  fruit. 

The  turtle. 

Preparation  of  plants  and  animals  for  winter. 

WINTER  TERn. 

Parrot  (if  the  bird  can  be  seen  by  the  children). 

Crow  and  owl.     Compare  with  the  parrot. 

History  of  snow  crystals. 

Salt  and  sulphur  crystals. 

Quartz  crystals. 

Kinds  and  formation  of  pebbles  and  stones. 


Outline  of  Topics  for  Second  Grade.  83 

Watch  for  and  note  time  of  return  of  spring 
birds. 

Watch  for  pussies  on  the  willow.  Notice  the 
first  chang"es  in  the  buds  of  this  tree,  and  of  its 
mate  which  bears  the  seeds.  Notice  all  succeed- 
ing changes  in  both  trees. 

Watch  for  changes  in  buds  of  linden,  larch,  and 
birch. 

Goat.     Compare  with  the  sheep. 

Simple  process  of  butter  and  cheese  making. 

SPRING  TERH. 

CoQtinue  study  of  willow,  linden,  larch,  and 
birch  until  end  of  term  or  until  seeds  have  ripened. 

Plant  pumi^kin,  squash,  melon,  and  morning 
glory  seeds.    Watch  growth  and  changes. 

Grapes — buds,  blossoms,  and  green  fruit. 

Bluebird  and  brown  thrush. 

Violet  and  wild  rose. 

Frogs  and  toads.  Watch  development  from 
eggs. 

(The  order  in  which  these  objects  are  studied 
is  determined  largely  by  the  time  of  their  appear- 
ance.) 

B00K5  FOR  REFERENCE. 

For  study  of  trees  and  Uowers  see  books  al- 
ready referred  to  under  First  Grade  work. 

For  study  of  squash,  see  "How  a  Squash  Plant 
Gets  Out  of  the  Seed,"  "Teachers'  Leaflets  on 
Nature  Study,"  Cornell  University. 

For  study  of  parrot,  see  ''Cyclopaedia  of  Com- 


84  Special  Method  in  Science. 

mon  Things,"  pp.  444  and  445;  Anderson-Maskel's 
"Children  with  the  Birds,  p.  265;  Johonnot's 
"Wing-s  and  Fins,"  p.  221;  "Standard  Natural 
History,"  vol.  4,  p.  319;  "Johnson's  Natural  His- 
tory, "  vol.  2 ;  "Museum  of  Natural  History, "  vol.  2. 

For  study  of  moths  and  butterflies  see  Ballard's 
"Moths  and  Butterflies,"  Scudder's  "Butterflies," 
and  Mrs.  Tenney's  "Pictures  and  Stories  of  Ani- 
mals," vol  4. 

For  study  of  birds,  in  addition  to  the  books  men- 
tioned for  reference  in  First  Grade,  see  also  "The 
Common  Crow,"  "Some  Common  Birds  in  their 
Relation  to  Ag-riculture, "  "Hawks  and  Owls  from 
the  Standpoint  of  the  Farmer,"  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

For  study  of  crystals  and  pebbles,  see  Shaler's 
"First  Book  in  Geology"  and  "Cyclopsedia  of 
Common  Things,"  pp.  497,  518,  and  572. 

For  study  of  toads'  and  frogs'  eggs,  see  "The 
Life  History  of  the  Toad,"  "Teachers'  Leaflets  on 
Nature  Study,"  College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell 
University;  Margaret  Morley's  "Song  of  Life"  and 
"Seed  Babies;"  Jane  Andrews'  "Stories  Mother 
Nature  Told  Her  Children,"  and  Mrs.  Tenney's 
"Pictures  and  Stories  of  Animals,"  No.  3. 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  85 


ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSONS  TOR  PRIMARY 
GRADES. 

This  series  of  nature  lessons  for  prlmarj-^  grades  was  worked 
out  by  Mrs.  Lida  B.  McMurry  and  used  in  those  grades. 


THE  SHEPHERD  DOQ. 

(Suggested  by  the  story  of  "The  Old  Woman  and  Her  Pig.") 

To  what  did  the  old  woman  first  go  for  help 
when  her  pig-  would  not  go?  (To  a  dog.)  Why 
should  she  g"o  to  a  dog-?  (Dog-s  help  to  drive 
pigs.)  Did  you  ever  see  one  driving  pigs,  cows, 
or  sheep?  How  did  it  drive  them?  (Trotted 
along  behind  them;  if  one  lagged  or  went  out  of 
the  w^ay,  the  dog  barked  at  it  or  jumped  at  it, 
snapping  his  teeth;  if  the  animal  paid  no  atten- 
tion to  this,  the  dog  did  what  the  old  woman 
wanted  the  one  in  the  story  to  do.)  What  was 
that?  (Bite.)  These  dogs  do  not  bite  hard, 
usually. 

How^  many  have  ever  seen  a  dog  driving  sheep? 
What  do  we  call  a  dog  that  cares  for  sheep?  We 
shall  talk  about  shepherd  dogs  and  see  how  use- 
ful they  are. 

Who  in  the  class  has  or  knows  a  shepherd  dog? 
Does  it  know  much?  How  do  you  know?  (Chil- 
dren relate  what  they  know  of  this  species  of  dogs, 
the  teacher  telling  stories  from  her  own  experi- 


86  Special  Method  in  Science. 

ence.  or  such  as  she  has  read,  illustrating  their 
sagacity.) 

When  I  was  a  little  girl  my  father  owned  a 
shepherd  dog,  named  Prince.  We  were  all  very 
fond  of  him.  Our  home  was  a  long,  long  way 
from  any  neighbor,  and  in  the  daytime  our  sheep 
grazed  on  a  great  pasture  which  was  as  large  as 
this  whole  town.  This  was  a  queer  pasture,  you 
will  think,  when  I  tell  you  that  there  was  no 
fence  at  all  around  it,  and  when  we  spoke  of  it 
we  called  it  a  prairie.  Every  morning  Prince 
would  help  my  father  drive  the  sheep  to  this 
prairie.  A  place  was  found  where  the  grass  was 
good,  and  here  the  sheep  would  spend  the  day. 
One  of  their  number  wore  a  bell,  and  through  the 
day  we  could  hear  the  distant  tinkle  of  the  bell. 
If  for  any  length  of  time  we  failed  to  hear  it,  some 
one  went  with  Prince  to  the  prairie  to  see  what 
was  the  matter. 

At  night  my  father  would  call  Prince  and  say, 
"Prince,  bring  up  the  sheep,"  and  away  he  would 
trot,  alone,  the  very  instant  he  was  told  to  go. 
He  gathered  his  flock  together,  and  drove  them 
home.  If  any  sheep  was  hurt  or  sick  so  it  could 
not  go.  Prince,  after  trying  to  get  it  along,  would 
leave  it  and  drive  home  the  others.  He  knew  just 
how  fast  the  sheep  could  go  without  becoming 
tired  out,  and  no  matter  how  many  rabbits  ran 
across  his  path,  he  never  left  the  sheep  to  chase 
the   rabbits,  though  he   enjoyed  nothing  better 


lllusiratwe  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  87 

when  by  himself.  On  reaching  home,  had  a  sheep 
been  left  behind,  Prince  would  go  to  my  father, 
look  up  into  his  face,  bark,  and  start  toward  the 
prairie.  We  always  knew  from  this  that  some- 
thing" was  wrong,  so  father  would  follow  Prince 
and  get  the  poor  sheep  home. 

Our  cattle  were  kept  in  a  fenced  pasture.  One 
Sunday,  on  returning  from  church,  we  saw  that 
some  strange  cattle  had  broken  into  this  pasture 
and  were  grazing  with  our  own.  The  gate  of  the 
pasture  was  opened  and  Prince  told  to  "drive 
them  out."  He  knew  our  own  cattle  well,  and  we 
all  watched  him  as  he  went  into  the  herd,  picked 
out  one  by  one  the  strange  cattle,  and  drove  them 
to  the  gate. 

How  do  you  think  Prince  could  tell  which  cat- 
tle were  not  our  own?  (He  had  sharp  eyes.)  Have 
the  shepherd  dogs  that  you  know  sharp  eyes? 
Why  do  you  think  so?  Of  what  color  are  their 
eyes?  Do  all  the  dogs  which  you  know  have  eyes 
of  this  color?  Do  the  little  puppies  have  brown 
eyes?  Are  the  shepherd  dog's  eyes  larger  or 
smaller  than  your  own?  Of  the  same  shape?  Are 
they  in  the  same  part  of  the  face  as  your  own? 
Tell  me  what  you  have  learned  about  the  shep- 
herd dog's  eyes. 

But  when  Prince  started  out  for  the  sheep, 
was  it  his  eyes  that  told  him  where  they  were? 
(No,  he  could  not  see  them.)  How  did  he  know 
where  they   were?     (He   might  have  heard  the 


88  Special  Method  in  Science. 

bell.)  Could  he  hear  well,  do  you  think?  Do 
your  dogs  hear  well?  (Children  relate  their  ex: 
periences.)  What  does  your  dog"  do  first  when 
you  call  him?  (Pricks  up  his  ears.)  Why?  (So 
that  he  may  catch  all  of  the  sound  that  he 
can.)  Can  you  prick  up  your  ears?  (Our  ears 
stand  out  so  that  we  can  catch  the  sound 
easily  without  moving  them.)  Where  does  the 
sound  which  he  catches  go?  (Through  the 
openings  in  the  side  of  his  head.)  Did  you  ever 
look  into  these  openings?  Do  flies,  bugs,  dust, 
etc.,  go  through  these  openings?  What  is  to 
hinder?  (Shepherd  dogs'  ears  droop  over  this 
opening,  and  hair  covers  it  largely.)  How  is  it 
with  your  ears?  What  keeps  insects  out?  Where 
on  the  dog's  head  do  you  find  his  ears?  Are  they 
higher  up  or  lower  down  than  our  own?  How 
many  ears  has  he?     Why  does  he  need  two? 

Tell  me  now  all  you  can  about  a  shepherd  dog's 
ears. 

But  Prince  sometimes  could  neither  see  nor 
hear  the  sheep,  yet  he  started  olf  in  the  right  di- 
rection. How  did  he  know  where  to  go?  He 
might  have  remembered.  But  if  he  had  not  re- 
membered, quite  likely  he  could  have  found  them. 
Have  you  ever  seen  a  dog  that  was  lost  from  liis 
master?  What  did  he  do?  (Put  his  nose  down 
close  to  the  ground.)  Why?  (To  scent  the  tracks 
of  his  master.)  Can  your  shepherd  dog  smell 
well,  Archie?    Does  his  nose  look  as  if  he  could? 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Pnmary  Grades.  89 

(Yes,  it  is  long-,  and  pointed,  and  has  large  holes.) 
We  call  these  holes  nostrils. 

Now,  tell  me  how  a  shepherd  dog"  might  find 
the  sheep  when  he  could  neither  see  nor  hear  them. 

Prince  had  to  go  for  the  sheep  in  rainy  as 
well  as  in  pleasant  weather.  He  had  no  rubber 
coat  or  umbrella.  How  did  he  keep  off  the  rain? 
(He  had  a  good  hair  coat.)  Was  it  a  good  one? 
(Yes,  shepherd  dogs  have  thick  hair  all  over  the 
body.)  What  did  he  do  with  his  coat  in  pleasant 
weather?  Of  what  use  was  it  to  him  then?  (Kept 
him  warm.)  Did  he  wear  such  a  coat  in  summer? 
Why?  (To  help  keep  bug's,  flies,  etc.,  from  biting 
him.)  Is  not  the  winter  coat  too  thick  for  sum- 
mer? What  is  done  about  it?  How  do  you  know? 
(We  do  not  like  to  handle  the  dog  or  have  him  in 
the  house  in  the  spring"  and  summer  when  he  is 
shedding  his  coat.)  Is  the  hair  next  the  body  like 
that  on  the  outside?  Do  you  think  this  is  well  for 
the  dog? 

Is  a  shepherd  dog's  hair  the  same  leng"th  all 
over  his  body?  Why  shorter  on  the  legs?  Why 
on  the  face?  Are  there  any  bare  places  on  his 
face?  Do  the  flies  ever  bother  him  here?  How 
does  he  get  them  off?  (Shakes  his  head  or 
brushes  them  off  with  his  paw.  Sometimes  he 
sleeps  with  his  paw  over  the  end  of  his  nose.) 

No  matter  liow  fast  Prince  ran,  his  coat  never 
looked  wet  with  sweat.  Did  you  ever  think  of  it 
— that  your  dogs  do  not  sweat  as  do  horses,  or  as 


90  Special  Method  in  Science. 

you  do?  How  do  you  think  Prince  showed  that 
he  was  very  warm?  (He  hung*  out  his  tongue: 
something"  that  looked  like  water  ran  off  from  it.) 
Do  you  supjjose  that  this  cooled  him  off?  Put 
your  finger  in  your  mouth,  then  hold  it  up  in  the 
air  a  minute.  What  happens?  (It  gets  cold.) 
What  happens  when  the  wind  blows  on  the  dog's 
wet  tongue?     (It  cools  him.) 

What  is  the  color  of  the  coat  of  a  shepherd 
dog?  Prince's  coat  was  black,  with  a  w^hite  col- 
lar, a  white  star  in  his  forehead,  and  white  toes. 

You  may  tell  me,  now,  all  you  can  about  a 
shepherd  dog's  coat. 

The  road  over  which  Prince  went  w^as  a  rough 
one;  quite  stony,  too,  in  one  place.  Should  you 
think  his  feet  would  become  sore?  Do  the  bot- 
toms of  his  feet  touch  the  ground  as  do  yours 
when  you  walk?  [Have  a  shepherd  dog  in  the 
class  if  possible;  if  not,  another  dog  will  do.] 
What  part  touches  the  ground?  (Only  his  toes 
and  the  ball  of  his  foot.  He  walks  all  the  time  as 
we  do  when  going  on  tip-toe.)  On  how  many  toes 
does  he  walk?  Look  at  the  dog's  foot.  Picture 
one  of  the  front  feet,  also  one  of  the  hind  feet. 
Has  the  dog  a  toe  answering  to  your  thumb? 
Point  to  it.  One  answering  to  your  big  toe?  Point 
to  it.  Where  are  his  heels?  Feel  of  them.  Some 
child,  quite  likely,  may  have  on  low  shoes.  Call 
attention  to  the  great  tendon  of  Achilles  which 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Pr-imary  Grades.  91 

lifts  the  heel.    Where  do  we  find  this  in  the  dog's 
hind  legs?    Where  is  his  heel? 

Look  at  these  toes  on  which  the  dog  walks. 
Feel  of  the  part  that  touches  the  ground.  (It  is  al- 
most as  tough  as  leather  Each  toe  and  the  ball  of 
the  foot  has  a  cushion  with  a  very  thick  cover.) 
Do  you  think  that  the  stones  hurt  Prince? 

Does  the  dog  make  much  noise  in  running? 
Why  not?  Listen  as  he  runs  over  the  floor.  What 
do  you  hear?  Now  you  may  tell  me  all  you  can 
about  a  shepherd  dog's  feet. 

When  Prince  came  home  at  night  we  used  to 
pet  him.  In  what  way,  do  you  think?  Do  you 
think  he  liked  to  be  petted?  How  would  he  show 
that  he  liked  it?    What  was  he  telling  us? 

In  what  other  way  do  you  think  we  showed 
that  we  cared  for  him?  (Gave  him  a  good  din- 
ner.) What  do  dogs  like  best  to  eat?  How  do 
they  eat  the  meat?  (Swallow^  large  pieces  with- 
out chewing.  They  sometimes  hold  the  meat 
down  with  their  front  feet,  or  hands,  while  they 
pull  off  pieces  of  it.)  What  part  do  they  eat  that 
we  never  eat?     (Bones.) 

[Bring  a  gentle  dog  to  the  class  and  examine 
its  teeth,  if  the  jaw  of  a  dog  cannot  be  procured.] 
What  are  these  long,  sharp  teeth  for?  Have  you 
such  teeth?  Show  me  that  you  have.  Are  they 
longer  or  shorter  than  those  of  the  dog?  What 
are  these  smaller  front  teeth  of  the  dog  for?  How 
many?     Have   you  such  teeth?    Where?    With 


02  Special  Method  in  Science. 

what  teeth  does  it  chew  the  bones?  Are  they 
g-ood  teeth  for  that? 

What  do  dogs  do  with  bones  left  from  a  meal? 
(Bury  them.)  Where?  How  do  they  make  the 
hole  in  which  to  bury  them?  Which  claws  do 
they  use?  What  kind  of  claws  does  a  dog  need 
to  dig  with?  (Strong  claws.)  Why?  (So  they 
will  not  break.)  What  shape  must  they  be? 
Look  at  the  Shepherd  dog's  claws  and  find  if  they 
are  strong  and  slightly  curved.  How  does  he 
cover  the  hole?     Notice  carefully. 

We  also  set  a  pan  of  water  where  Prince  could 
get  it.  How^  did  he  drink  it?  Watch  your  dogs 
drink  water  and  tell  me  just  how  they  do  it.  Do 
dogs  drink  much  water?  How  much  at  a  time? 
Sometimes  they  suffer  because  their  masters  for- 
get that  they  need  water. 

Not  long  after  Prince  had  had  his  dinner  he 
went  to  bed.  What  kind  of  a  bed  does  a  dog  like? 
Did  you  ever  watch  a  dog  lie  down  in  his  bed? 
What  does  it  do?  Children  report  later,  if  not 
ready  now. 

Did  you  ever  hear  a  dog  talk?  Prince  was  a 
good  talker,  after  his  fashion,  and  we  could  un- 
derstand what  he  meant,  usually.  In  what  ways 
do  you  think  he  talked?  id)  He  growled  when  he 
did  not  like  what  he  saw  or  heard.  (&)  He  barked 
hard  and  long  when  he  wished  to  drive  animals 
away,  (c)  He  barked  short  happy  barks  when  he 
was  glad  to  see  us.     {d)  He  whined  when  not  al- 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Prima)^  Grades.  93 

lowed  to  follow  us  into  the  house,  (e)  He  snarled 
at  any  one  who  tried  to  get  his  food  away  from 
him,  or  at  a  tramp.  (/)  He  howled  when  left  at 
home  alone,     ig)  He  yelped  when  he  was  hurt. 

He  had  a  way  of  talking,  also,  without  making 
a  sound.  How  was  that?  (By  his  tail.)  What 
did  his  tail  tell?  (When  he  wagged  his  tail  it 
told  us  that  he  was  pleased,  or  that  he  thought 
we  were  going  to  give  him  something  that  he 
liked.  Dogs  wag  their  tails  just  before  they 
* 'speak."  When  he  was  frightened,  or  ashamed, 
he  carried  his  tail  down  between  his  legs.) 

The  children  might  review  the  whole  subject 
of  shepherd  dogs  by  going  w^ith  Prince  after  the 
sheep. 

Do  you  think  shepherd  dogs  are  useful?  What 
have  we  found  that  they  can  do?  What  other 
helpful  things  have  you  seen  them  do? 

Other  species  of  dogs  familiar  to  the  children 
may  be  studied  by  comparison  with  the  above, 
thus: 

What  other  kind  of  dogs  do  you  know?  Ralph 
has  a  rat- terrier.  How  many  have  seen  one? 
(Probably  all.)  How  does  a  rat-terrier  help  us? 
(Catches  rats.)  How  is  it  that  he  can  catch  rats 
better  than  a  shepherd  dog  can?  (r/)  He  is  much 
smaller.  How  does  this  help  him?  He  can  go 
under  piles  of  rubbish  and  into  holes  where  a  shep- 
herd dog  could  not  go.  ib)  He  is  quicker  in  his 
movements.      How  does  this  help?     (A  rat  runs 


94  Special  Method  in  Science. 

fast.  A  dog"  must  be  very  quick  to  catch  it.)  (c) 
His  teeth  are  smaller,  and  so,  sharper  than  those 
of  a  shepherd  dog",  (d)  His  hair  is  straight,  short, 
and  stiff,  and  lies  down  close  to  his  body,  so  he 
can  g-et  into  holes  more  easily  than  the  shepherd 
dog  with  long,  thick,  curly  hair. 

Children  make  a  drawing  of  the  shepherd  dog. 

AUTUriN  LEAVES  AND  BUDS. 

As  soon  as  the  leaves  begin  to  fall,  encourage 
the  children  to  bring"  beautiful  ones  to  school, 
the  teacher  pressing  some  of  them  for  the  decora- 
tion of.the  school  room.  Ask  the  children  to  name 
the  trees  from  which  the  leaves  come.  Notice 
what  tree  first  puts  on  gay  colors,  and  have  the 
children  note  carefully  the  succession. 

The  trees  that  wear  yellow  dresses  may  be 
grouped  together,  also  those  that  wear  dresses  of 
red,  purple,  spotted  red  and  yellow,  etc.  Do  all 
trees  that  send  off  their  leaves,  dress  them  beau- 
tifully before  they  g"o?  What  trees  have  leaves 
that  shrivel  up  when  the  frosts  come? 

You  have  had  a  story  about  a  little  leaf  that 
worried  a  great  deal — The  Anxious  Leaf.  About 
what  did  it  worry?  (For  fear  the  wind  would  pull 
it  off  and  throw  it  down  on  the  ground  to  die.) 
Is  the  wind  doing  that  with  any  leaves  now?  Do 
they  fall  easily?  Could  the  wind  always  pull  the 
leaves  off  so  easily?  (No,  not  in  the  spring"  and 
summer.)    You  may  shake  the  little  branch  that 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primai-y  Grades.  95 

I  brought  in.  (The  leaves  come  whirling  down.) 
Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  out  why  the  leaves  fall 
so  easily  now.  Why  is  it,  do  you  think?  (''They 
forget  to  hang  on."  "They  are  loose."  "Some- 
thing is  growing  up  between  the  leaf  and  the 
branch  and  the  leaf  can't  reach  around  it.")  Look 
closely  at  that  something.  What  is  it?  (A  tiny 
bud.)  Will  it  fall  off?  Why  do  you  think  it  will 
not?  (It  holds  on  so  tightly.)  Do  you  think  it 
liked  to  have  the  leaf  by  it?  (Yes,  the  leaf  put 
its  arms  around  it  and  kept  it  warm,  and  dry,  and 
out  of  the  sight  of  bugs  which  might  eat  such  a 
little  thing.)  It  is  true  that  the  buds  need  the 
leaves  when  they  are  so  tiny,  but  they  do  not  push 
the  leaves  off.  Notice  carefully  these  leaves  on 
the  branch.  Here  is  a  little  fence  which  has 
been  slowly  built  up  between  the  leaf  and  the 
branch.  When  the  fence  is  done  the  leaf  drops. 
But  this  fence  is  never  built  up  too  fast.  The 
leaves,  all  through  the  summer,  are  working  away, 
for  they  prepare  all  the  food  which  the  tree  needs. 
When  the  little  fence  is  begun  the  tree  ceases  to 
eat  much  and  so  stops  growing.  Instead  of  using 
the  food  prepared  by  the  leaves,  it  packs  it  away 
in  its  trunk  and  branches,  for  it  will  need  it  in  the 
spring,  and  when  the  leaves  have  furnisheid  the 
tree  all  the  food  it  needs  their  work  is  done  and 
they  are  ready  to  go,  and  just  at  that  time  the 
fence  is  finished. 

[This  is  probably  as  deep  as  we  shall  care  to 


96  Special  Method  in  IScience. 

go  into  the  subject  with  the  little  children  who 
have  just  entered  school.] 

You  have  spoken  of  the  leaf  caring-  for  the 
bud.  Why  should  it  care  for  it  so  tenderly?  Of 
what  use  is  a  bud?  Let  us  see  what  is  in  this 
little  Cottonwood  bud.  (The  outside  is  sticky.) 
Why  is  that?  (To  protect  it  from  the  rain  and 
snow  and  to  keep  bugs  from  eating  it.)  We  will 
take  off  this  waterproof  coat  very  carefully. 
What  do  you  see  here?  What  do  these  coats  do? 
(There  must  be  something  very  fine  inside  which 
these  coats  are  keeping  safe.)  And  inside  these 
soft  wrappings  what  do  we  find?  (Some  tiny 
leaves.)  What  are  they  doing  here?  (They  are 
lying  in  their  warm  bed,  cuddled  closely  together, 
waiting  for  spring.  When  the  weather  begins  to 
get  warm  in  the  spring  the  wax  on  the  outside 
will  melt  and  the  buds  will  throw  off  their  cov- 
ers and  come  out.)  Why  not  come  out  now? 
(They  would  freeze  in  the  winter,  so  the  tree  gives 
them  very  little  food — just  enough  to  keep  them 
alive  but  not  enough  to  make  them  grow.) 

Open  other  buds,  some  will  be  found  to  contain 
flowers.  Notice  the  difference  in  the  shapes  of 
the  leaf  buds  and  flower  buds.  [The  flower  buds 
on  many  trees  are  short  and  round,  while  the  leaf 
buds  are  long  and  pointed.] 

Was  it  not  too  bad  for  the  leaf  to  leave  the 
little  bud?  (No;  the  bud  does  not  need  it  longer, 
it  is  covered  up  so  well.     The  leaf  stayed  with  it 


Illustrative  Lessons  fm'  Primary  Grades.  97 

until  it  had  on  all  its  covers,  so  the  little  buds  do 
not  need  the  leayes,  and  the  tree  does  not  need 
them  to  prepare  its  food.  But  would  it  do  any 
harm  for  them  to  stay?  (Yes,  the  snow  mig-ht 
gather  on  the  leaves  and  break  the  branches  off 
with  its  weight.) 

Do  you  think  you  would  find  buds  on  all  these 
trees  that  are  losing  their  leaves?  Look  and  see, 
and  find  if  all  the  leaves  and  flowers  are  wrapped 
up  in  the  same  way  that  those  on  the  Cottonwood 
are  wrapped. 

See  Jane  Ne well's  "Reader  in  Botany,"  I,  for  help;  also 
Gray's  "How  Plants  Grow."' 

It  is  advisable  to  center  observation  chiefly 
upon  one  or  two  kinds  of  trees,  as  hickory  and 
Cottonwood. 

THE  COW. 

To  what  animal  did  the  old  woman  (in  the 
story  of  "The  Old  Woman  and  Her  Pig")  go  last 
for  help?  (To  the  cow\)  What  did  she  want  the 
cow  to  do  for  her?  (Give  her  some  milk.)  But 
before  the  cow  would  give  her  any  milk,  she  must 
do  something  for  the  cow.  What  was  that?  (Give 
her  some  hay.)  How  much  did  she  give  her?  (An 
armful.)  Is  an  armful  of  hay  enough  to  last  a  cow 
all  day?  How  many  of  my  armfuls  do  you  think 
it  would  take?  Why  does  a  cow  need  so  much  to 
eat?  (She  is  large.)  As  large  as  a  shepherd  dog? 
(Much  larger.  A  shepherd  dog  could  walk  right 
under  a  good-sized  cow.) 


98  Special  Method  in  Science. 

Where  do  the  farmers  get  this  hay  that  the  cow 
likes?  Do  the  cows  ever  get  it  from  the  fields 
themselves?  When?  Did  you  ever  watch  a  cow 
eating-  grass?  What  did  she  do  first?  (Put  her 
head  down  to  the  ground.)  Could  you  do  that? 
(Yes,  if  I  could  stand  as  a  cow  stands.)  Do  you 
think  so?  How  does  the  cow  stand?  On  what? 
Its  toes,  as  the  dog  does?  (No,  it  stands  on  the 
nails  of  its  third  and  fourth  fingers  and  toes.) 
What  do  we  call  these  nails  of  the  cow?  (Hoofs.) 
Where  are  the  nails  on  our  fingers?  (On  the  back 
of  the  ends  of  our  fingers.)  Where  are  the  nails 
of  the  cow?  (Her  nails  or  hoofs  go  all  the  way 
around.)  Feel  of  them.  (They  are  very  hard  and 
thick.)  Does  she  need  such  hoofs?  Why?  Notice 
the  shape.  (They  look  like  one  hoof  cut  in  two.) 
Because  they  look  this  way,  we  say  the  cow  has 
a  cloven  hoof.  Cloven  means  cut  in  two,  but  we 
know  that  she  has  two  nails  or  hoofs  on  each  foot. 

Now  you  know  how  the  cow  stands  while  -she 
eats.  How  is  it?  Would  any  like  to  try  standing 
as  she  does?  (Can  not  do  it.)  Why  not?  (Our 
nails  are  not  strong  enough  to  bear  our  weight.) 
Does  the  cow  have  any  trouble  to  stand?  Can 
she  reach  the  grass  on  the  ground  with  ease?  How 
does  she  gather  the  grass?  (She  reaches  out  with 
her  tongue  and  draws  a  wisp  into  her  mouth,  and 
nips  it  off  with  her  teeth.)  What  kind  of  a  tongue 
has  she,  that  can  be  used  in  this  way?  (A  long, 
limber,  rough  one.)     Why  need  to  be  long?     Why 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  99 

limber?  Why  roug-h?  What  else  does  she  use  in 
gathering  the  grass?  (Her  thick,  broad  lips.) 
[These  answers  should  be  the  result  of  the  child's 
careful  observations.]  How  does  she  bite  off  the 
grass?  (With  her  front  teeth.)  Have  you  noticed 
anything  strange  about  these  front  teeth?  (The 
cow  has  no  front  teeth  in  her  upper  jaw.)  How 
then  can  she  bite  off  the  grass?  (The  upper  front 
jaw  is  very  hard,  almost  as  hard  as  a  bone.) 

Does  she  eat  rapidly?  How  long  does  she  chew 
on  a  mouthful  of  grass?  Does  she  keep  on  eating 
all  day  at  this  rate?  (No,  after  a  while  she  lies 
down,  or  stands  and  rests.)  Did  you  ever  notice 
how  a  cow  lies  down?  Does  she  lie  down  as  the 
dog  does?  What  does  she  do  first?  Then  what? 
If  you  watch  her  mouth  while  she  is  lying  down 
or  resting  standing,  what  will  you  find  her  doing? 
(Chewing  her  cud.)  What  is  this  cud,  and  where 
does  it  come  from?  I  will  tell  you.  Where  does 
your  food  go  after  you  swallow  it?  (Into  the 
stomach.)  Now,  a  cow  has  a  very  large  stomach. 
The  grass  which  she  bites  off  she  chews  but  a  lit- 
tle, if  any.  She  swallows  it,  and  it  goes  into  a 
room  in  this  big  stomach,  where  it  soaks  for  a 
while.  Watch  a  cow's  throat  a  little  while  after 
she  lies  down,  and  tell  me  what  you  see.  (Some- 
thing going  up  her  throat  toward  her  mouth.) 
This  is  a  little  of  the  soaked  grass  going  up  to  be 
well  chewed.  We  now  call  it  a  cud.  What  be- 
comes of  this  cud?   (After  it  is  chewed  up  fine,  the 


100  Special  Method  in  Science. 

COW  swallows  it  and  it  g-oes  into  another  part  of 
this  big  stomach.)  Then  what?  (Another  cud 
goes  up  to  be  chewed  in  the  same  way, and  so  on.) 
Do  the  cow's  jaws  move  as  yours  do  when  chew- 
ing? How  do  yours  move?  (The  upper  jaw  does 
not  move.  The  lower  jaw  moves  chiefly  up  and 
down.)  Do  the  cow's  move  in  that  way?  (Her 
upper  jaw  does  not  move,but  her  lower  jaw  moves 
from  one  side  to  the  other.)  What  does  this  side- 
wise  motion  of  the  lower  teeth  on  the  upper  teeth 
do  for  the  grass?  (Grinds  it  up.  It  is  her  mill  in 
motion.)  Which  teeth  do  the  grinding?  (The 
back  teeth.)  Let  us  see  if  they  are  good  grinders. 
[Have  jaw  of  cow  if  possible.]  (They  are  broad, 
flat,  and  hard.) 

Is  it  a  good  thing  that  the  Cow  can  pack  away 
her  food,  and  chew  it  when  at  rest?  (Yes.  She 
can  gather  grass  in  the  cool  of  the  day,  then  lie 
down  in  the  shade  when  the  sun  is  hot,  and  eat  it. 
She  does  not  have  to  stand  as  much  as  she  other- 
wise would,  but  can  rest  while  eating.) 

In  the  winter  time,  what  does  the  cow  eat  in- 
stead of  grass?  (Hay,  straw,  and  fodder.)  She 
eats  these  as  she  does  the  grass,  i.  e.,  chews  them 
slightly,  swallows,  then  re-chews  as  a  cud. 

What  beside  grass,  hay,  and  straw  does  the 
cow  like  to  eat?  (Corn.)  How  does  she  get  hold 
of  the  ears  of  corn?  How  does  she  eat  corn? 
What  becomes  of  the  cob? 

What  else  does  the  cow  like?  (Oats,  meal,  and 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  THmary  Otades'.  •   •        ioi 

bran.)     How  does  she  eat  them?     What  is  bran? 

Can  you  think  of  anything"  else  we  feed  the 
cow?  (Carrot,  turnips,  beets.)  How  does  she  eat 
them? 

Anything  else?  (Salt.)  Do  we  salt  the  cow 
often?     How  does  she  eat  it? 

Can  you  think  of  something-  else  she  would 
want?  (Water.)  How  often  should  a  cow  be 
watered?  Does  she  lap  up  the  water  as  the  dog- 
does?     How,  then,  does  she  drink? 

[All  these  answers  made  by  the  children  should 
be  the  result  of  their  own  observations,  j 

Now,  is  there  anything  we  can  do  for  the  cow 
in  the  summer,  besides  feeding  her  well?  (Give 
her  a  pasture  in  which  there  are  trees  or  a  shed 
to  protect  her  from  the  hot  sun.)  And  in  the  win- 
ter, what?  (Give  her  good  shelter  from  the  cold 
and  snow,  and  a  g-ood  straw  bed  at  nig-ht.)  But 
has  she  not  a  hair  coat  to  keep  off  the  cold  and 
snow?  (This  coat  helps,  but  it  is  not  thick 
enough  to  keep  her  warm  in  bad  weather.)  Is  it 
as  thick  as  the  shepherd  dog-'s  coat?  Are  the 
hairs  of  the  same  leng-th  as  his?  Are  they  as  fine? 
Does  she  wear  the  same  coat  in  summer  and  win- 
ter, or  has  she  a  lighter  coat  in  the  summer,  as 
the  dog-  has?  How  do  you  know?  Is  her  coat 
the  same  color  as  that  of  the  shepherd  dog?  We 
do  not  often  see  the  cow's  coat  wet  from  sweating. 
When  she  g-ets  warm,  she  opens  her  mouth,  lolls 
out  her  tongue,  and  pants,  much  as  the  dog  does. 


102  Special  Method  in  Science. 

In  the  winter  you  can  see  the  steam  coming"  from  her 
great  nostrils.     Have  you  noticed  these  nostrils? 

Where  is  the  hair  longest  on  the  cow?  (On 
end  of  tail.)  What  use  does  she  make  of  this  long 
brush?  But  she  cannot  keep  the  flies  off  her  neck 
and  shoulders,  even  with  so  long  a  brush.  (She 
drives  them  off  by  tossing  her  head  around.)  How 
does  she  keep  them  off  her  feet  and  forelegs? 
(Stamps  her  feet  )  Children  speak  of  the  trouble 
of  milking-  cows  in  summer  on  account  of  flies. 

Can  you  think  of  any  other  way  she  has  of 
driving  away  things  that  bother  her?  Does  she 
bark  or  bite,  as  the  dog  does?  (She  has  horns  to 
hook  with.)  [Have  a  horn  in  the  class  if  possi- 
ble.] Can  she  hurt  with  such  horns?  (Yes,  the 
outside  is  very  hard,  and  they  are  strong  and 
sharp  pointed.)  From  what  part  of  the  head  do 
they  grow?  Is  that  a  good  place  for  them?  Why 
do  you  think  so?  How  does  she  use  them?  When? 
(Not  so  often  to  defend  herself  as  to  protect  her 
calf.  She  is  very  fond  of  it.)  Did  you  ever  see 
her  drive  away  dogs?  How  else  does  she  show 
that  she  is  fond  of  her  calf?  (She  cries  for  it 
if  it  is  taken  away.  She  licks  it  with  her  tongue. 
That  is  the  only  way  she  has  of  kissing  it.  She 
stands  still  for  it  to  get  its  dinner.  Do  you  think 
the  little  calf  pretty?  What  do  you  like  about 
its  looks?  (It  has  pretty  eyes  for  one  thing;  so 
has  its  mother.) 

Children  draw  pictures  of  cow  and  dog  side  by 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  103 

side.  Draw  from  objects  if  possible.  The  teacher 
will  lead  the  children  to  correct  their  own  draw 
ings  by  reference  to  the  objects.  Before  drawing 
notice  the  form  of  each  closely  and  compare  so  as 
to  be  able  to  draw  them  correctly. 

We  have  found  many  things  that  we  can  do 
or  the  cow,  now  we  shall  see  what  she  does  for 
us.  What  does  she  give  us  night  and  morning? 
How  do  we  get  the  milk?  Which  gives  the  more, 
the  cow  kindly  cared  for,  or  the  cow  poorly  housed 
and  fed?  For  what  do  we  use  milk?  Do  we  get 
cream  from  the  cow?  Do  you  see  it  when  she  is 
being  milked?  (No,  we  only  see  the  milk.)  Where 
do  we  get  the  cream?  (It  rises  on  the  milk.) 
What  is  made  from  cream?  (Butter.)  Tell  me 
how  butter  is  made.  [If  possible  watch  the  pro- 
cess.] What  is  made  from  cream  and  milk? 
(Cheese  and  cottage  cheese.)  What  else  is  cream 
used  for?     (Ice  cream,  etc.) 

What  other  food  do  we   get  from  the  cow? 
What  is  the  flesh  of  the  cow  called?     (Beef.)     Do 
we  eat  much  beef?     What  do  we  call  the  beef  w) 
use?    (Steak,  roast,  soup-bones,  dried  beef,  etc. 
Beef  is  also  used  in  mince  pies. 

The  flesh  of  the  calf  is  called  veal. 

The  fat  of  the  cow  gives  us  suet  for  puddings 
and  mince  pies.  We  also  get  tallow  from  the  fat. 
Prom  tallow,  candles  and  wagon-grease  are  made. 
It  is  also  used  in  making  soap.     Oleomargarine, 


104  Special  Method  in  Science. 

which  takes  the  place  of  butter,  is  made  from 
tallow. 

Is  the  hair  coat  of  any  use  to  us?  (Men  put 
hair  in  plaster  to  hold  it  together.) 

Does  the  thick  undercoat  keep  us  warm?  (Yes, 
it  is  made  into  leather.)  From  the  leather,  boots, 
shoes,  and  shoe-soles  are  made.  From  the  calf's 
coat,  fine  shoes  are  made. 

What  do  the  cow's  horns  g"ive  us?  (Combs  and 
knife  handles.)  Have  these  in  the  class  for  the 
children  to  look  at. 

The  hoofs,  too,  are  useful  to  us,  for  what? 
(They  are  made  into  glue.)  (Have  glue  in  class.) 
Show  pieces  of  furniture  glued  together. 

Even  the  bones  of  a  cow  are  of  use  to  us.  For 
what?     (Buttons  and  knife  handles.) 

You  may  tell  me  all  the  things  the  cow  gives 
us. 

Which  now  do  you  think  is  the  more  useful  to 
us,  the  dog  or  the  cow?  (The  cow.)  But  they  are 
both  our  good  friends. 

A  large  product  chart  or  collection  of  products 
can  ^be  made  by  the  teacher  and  pupils;  it  adds 
greatly  to  the  interest  in  the  subject.  Milk,cream, 
etc.,  can  be  sealed  up  in  small  bottles. 

THE  SHEEP. 

(By  comparison  with  the  cow.) 

What  other  animals,  besides  cows  and  calves 
have  you  seen  grazing  in  pasture?  (Horses  and 
sheep.)    Have  all  seen  sheep?     [If  any  are  unfa- 


Illustrative  Lessoi\s  for  Primary  Grades.  105 

miliar  with  them  a  visit  should  be  made  to  one; 
or,  better,  to  a  flock.  Perhaps  some  chi^d  may 
have  a  pet  lamb,  which,  like  Mary's  in  the  poem, 
might  follow  him  "to  school  one  day."  This 
would  afford  an  excellent  opportunity  for  close 
study.] 

Watch  the  sheep  as  it  eats  g-rass.  What  does 
it  do?  How  does  it  bite  off  the  grass?  (With  its 
front  teeth.)  Look  at  these  front  teeth.  [The 
children  might  do  this  at  home  and  report  the  fol- 
lowing day.  They  discover  that  the  sheep  has 
no  teeth  in  the  front  part  of  its  upper  jaw.]  What 
other  animal  have  you  found  lacking  teeth  here? 
(The  cow.) 

See  how  long  the  sheep  chews  the  grass  before 
swallowing.  What  are  these  sheep  over  here  do- 
ing? (Lying  down  and  chewing  their  cuds.)  What 
will  these  sheep  that  are  eating  so  rapidly  now, 
do  by  and  by?  What  other  animal  eats  grass  in 
the  same  way?  (The  cow.)  From  what  you  know 
of  the  cow's  cud,  tell  me  how  you  think  the  sheep 
gets  its  cud?  [Children  review  process  of  rumin- 
ation in  the  cow.  If  this  study  is  taken  up  in  the 
wintertime  the  children  observe  the  sheep  eating 
hay  instead  of  grass.] 

Which  eats  the  grass  off  the  shorter,  the  cow 
or  the  sheep?    Why  can  the  sheep  do  this? 

Does  the  sheep  eat  corn  in  the  same  way  that 
a  cow  eats  it?  [Children  name  any  differences 
that  they  may  have  observed.]     (A  sheep  nibbles 


106  Special  Method  in  Science. 

off  the  kernels.)  Watch  it  and  see  how  it  does 
this.  What  else  does  it  eat?  Does  it  eat  carrots, 
turnips,  and  beets,  as  a  cow  eats  them?  What 
difference?  Does  it  hold  the  food  down  with  its 
foot,  as  the  dog-  sometimes  does,  when  eating-  its 
food?    How  do  sheep  eat  salt?    How  drink  water? 

Notice  how  lig-htly  the  sheep  step  around.  Let 
us  look  at  their  little  feet.  What  do  you  find? 
(They,  like  the  cow,  walk  on  their  toe-nails — two 
on  each  foot.) 

Did  you  ever  think  how  much  the  cow  and  the 
sheep  are  alike?  They  surely  must  be  cousins. 
Name  those  points  in  which  they  are  alike. 

(a)  Both  have  cloven  hoofs  (walk  on  toe-nails). 

(&)  Both  lack  teeth  in  front  part  of  the  upper 
jaw. 

(c)  Both  chew  the  cud. 

Are  they  unlike  in  any  ways?  Look  at  the 
two  as  they  g-raze  side  by  side.  How  can  you  tell 
them  apart?  (The  cow  is  much  larger  than  the 
sheep.  The  sheep  could  run  under  the  cow.  The 
sheep  is  nearer  the  size  of  the  shepherd  dog-.) 

If  both  were  of  the  same  size  could  you  tell 
them  apart  by  their  looks?  (The  sheep  has  a  wool 
coat,  the  cow,  a  hair  coat.)  Is  there  any  other 
difference  in  these  coats,  except  that  one  is  wool 
and  the  other  hair?  (The  sheep's  coat  is  usually 
white — occasionally  brown — the  cow's  coat  may 
be  white,  red,  black,  or  spotted.)  Is  there  not  still 
another  difference  between  the  sheep's  coat  and 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  PHman^  Grades.  107 

that  of  the  cow?  (The  sheep's  wool  coat  is  much 
thicker  than  the  cowl's  hair  coat.) 

Let  us  look  closely  at  this  wool  coat.  Have 
wool  in  the  class.  Each  child  may  pick  some  to 
pieces  and  see  if  it  is  at  all  like  the  cow's  hair 
coat.  (It  is  hair,  only  the  hairs  are  much  finer 
than  those  of  the  cow,  and  they  are  wavy  and 
seem  to  be  fastened  together,  so  that  it  is  hard  to 
pull  them  apart.)  Stretch  one  of  these  fine  hairs. 
What  about  its  length,  now?  (It  is  much  longer 
than  it  looks  to  be  when  on  the  sheep.)  Does  the 
wool  lie  down  on  the  sheep's  body  in  the  same 
way  that  the  hair  lies  down  on  the  cow's  body? 

You  have  told  me  that  the  sheep  and  cow  are 
unlike  in  size,  and  wear  different  kinds  of  coats. 

If  the  sheep  were  the  same  size  as  the  cow 
and  wore  the  same  kind  of  a  coat,  could  you  tel 
them  apart?  (Not  many  sheep  have  horns.)  Do 
all  cows  have  horns?  (Many  have  none.)  Could 
you  tell  them  apart  by  the  looks  of  their  horns? 
Look  at  the  sheep  with  horns  and  the  cow  with 
horns  and  see.  (The  cow's  horns  are  round,  quite 
smooth,  and  pointed.  They  usually  start  out 
from  the  head  in  opposite  directions,  then  curve 
inward  and  forward  so  it  can  hook  with  them.) 
[Children  show^  by  drawing  at  the  board.]  The 
sheep's  horns  grow  backward  and  downward,) 
often  forming  a  curl.  They  are  not  round,  and 
are  rough.  [Children  draw  a  sheep's  head  to 
show  how  its  horns  look.]     Can  you  think  why  it 


108  Special  Method  in  Science. 

is  well  that  the  sheep's  horns  do  not  stand  out  in 
front  of  its  head?  (Sheep  crowd  close  together 
in  the  fold  at  night,  or  when  frightened,  and  sharp 
pointed  horns  such  as  the  cow  has  would  be  apt 
to  injure  other  sheep.) 

How  can  sheep  keep  away  their  enemies  with 
such  horns,  or  no  horns  at  all,  as  in  most  cases? 
[Children  relate  any  experience  of  their  own,  or 
such  as  they  have  heard,  of  the  terrible  blow  given 
by  a  sheep  with  its  head,  butting.  The  large 
horned  sheep  are  usually  willing  to  do  the  fighting 
for  a  flock.  They  are  no  cowards.  The  teacher 
might  relate  instances  showing  the  bravery  of  the 
rams  in  defending  a  flock.]  Have  you  ever  noticed 
a  mother  sheep  when  a  dog  came  near  her  lamb? 
What  did  she  do  to  show  her  anger?  (Stamped 
her  foot.)  And  if  the  dog  came  nearer  what  did 
she  do? 

Then  she  can  fight  to  save  her  baby  from  harm, 
even  though  she  has  no  horns. 

You  may  tell  me  again  some  difference  between 
the  sheep's  horns  and  those  of  the  cow. 

In  how  many  points  have  we  found  the  sheep 
different  in  looks  from  the  cow? 

Now,  if  the  sheep  were  like  the  cow  in  size, 
wore  the  same  kind  of  a  coat,  and  had  the  same 
kind  of  horns,  could  you  still  tell  them  apart? 
Look  closely  at  the  animals  and  see.  (The  end  of 
a  cow's  nose  is  wide  and  bare.)  Its  nostrils  are 
far   apart.     The   sheep's   nose   is  more  pointed. 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  109 

There  is  hair  on  the  end  of  its  nose,  and  its  nos- 
trils are  quite  close  together 

Let  us  name  the  difference  in  looks  between 
the  sheep  and  the  cow.  (a)  The  sheep  is  smaller 
than  the  cow.  {h)  It  wears  a  wool  coat,  while  the 
cow  wears  a  hair  coat,  (c)  The  sheep's  horns  are 
different  from  those  of  the  cow.  [Children  ex- 
plain.] {d)  Their  noses  are  different.  [Children 
explain.] 

But  I  mig-ht  be  able  to  tell  a  sheep  from  a  cow 
without  looking-  at  one.  How?  (By  its  cry.  A 
sheep  says,  "Baa."  A  cow  says,  "Moo."  We  call 
a  sheep's  cry  a  bleat,  and  the  cow's  a  low. 
When  do  we  hear  the  sheep  bleating  a  great 
deal?  (In  the  spring  when  the  lambs  are  little.) 
And  how  do  the  lambs  answer  their  mothers' 
calls?  The  sheep  bleat  also  when  they  are  hun- 
gry or  thirsty.  So  we  can  tell  sheep  and  cows 
apart  both  by  seeing  and  by  hearing  them.  The 
scent  of  the  sheep  is  also  peculiar. 

We  found  that  the  cow  does  a  great  deal  for 
us.  Is  the  sheep  also  our  good  friend?  What 
does  it  do  for  us?  (Its  wool  is  made  into  blan- 
kets for  our  beds,  warm  shawls,  cloaks,  coats, 
etc.)  (Children  show  garments  made  of  wool.) 
How  do  we  get  it  from  the  sheep?  (Men  cut  it  off 
with  great  sheep-shears.)  How  often?  But  is  it 
not  very  dirty  after  being  worn  without  change 
for  a  whole  year?  [Children  tell  about  sheep 
washing  which  occurs   a  few  days  before  the 


110  special  Method  in  Science. 

shearing.  If  none  have  seen  the  process  the 
teacher  explains  and  shows  pictures.  J  Then  when 
their  wool  becomes  dry,  what  is  done?  [Children 
who  have  seen  sheep  sheared  explain  how  the 
coat  is  taken  off,  and  how  packed  away.  The 
teacher  shows  good  pictures  to  those  who  have 
never  seen  this  done.  Show  sheep-shears,  ex- 
plaining how  they  are  worked.]  An  explanation 
of  the  making  of  wool  into  cloth  is  given  later. 

Did  we  use  the  outside  coat  of  the  cow?  For 
clothing?  For  what,  then?  Which  outer  coat, 
that  of  the  sheep  or  that  of  the  cow,  is  of  the 
more  use  to  us?  Do  we  use  the  under  coat  of  the 
sheep— the  hide?  Is  it  of  the  same  thickness  as 
that  of  the  cow?  [Compare  some  pieces  of  pelts 
of  each.] 

Does  the  sheep  need  as  thick  an  undercoat  as 
the  cow?  Why  not?  (Its  wool  coat  is  so  much 
thicker  than  the  hair  coat  of  the  cow.)  What  is 
made  from  this  thin  undercoat  of  the  sheep? 
(Leather  out  of  w^hich  gloves  are  made  and  in 
which  books  are  bound.)  [Show  articles  made  from 
sheep  skin.  ]  Do  you  think  that  it  is  as  useful  as 
the  cow's  undercoat? 

What  else  does  the  sheep  give  us?  (Its  flesh 
to  eat.)  What  do  we  call  it?  (Mutton.)  Do  we 
use  its  fat?  What  do  we  call  it?  (Mutton  tallow.) 
For  what  is  it  used?  (Candles,  soap,  and  healing 
ointments  and  salves.) 

Which  does  the  most  for  us,  the  sheep,  the  cow. 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  Ill 

or  the  shepherd  do^?  Which  one  do  you  like  best 
for  a  pet? 

Children  draw  a  picture  of  cow  and  sheep  side 
by  side,  if  possible  from  objects.  Lead  them  to 
correct  their  own  mistakes  in  representation  by 
reference  to  the  real  object. 

A  chart  showing  the  products  of  the  sheep 
might  also  be  made. 

THE  RABBIT.    (COnnON  HARB.) 

The  purpose  of  the  first  recitation  is  to  find 
out  what  the  children  know  about  the  subject. 

"Did  you  see  some  little  tracks  in  the  snow 
this  morning  as  you  came  to  school?  What  made 
them?  (Dogs  or  cats.)  Did  you  see  any  others 
smaller  than  these?  What  had  made  them?  (Rab- 
bits.) "Show  me  on  the  board  just  how  these 
tracks  looked.  If  the  children  can  not  do  this, 
ask  them  to  notice  closely  and  draw  a  picture  of 
them  on  paper  and  bring  to  class  next  day.  When 
do  you  think  the  rabbit  made  them?  (At  night.) 
Why  was  he  running  around  at  night?  (To  get 
food.)  Why  not  get  his  food  in  the  day  time?  (He 
is  afraid  something  will  see  him  and  catch  him.) 
Then  the  rabbit  has  enemies,  has  he?  Name  some 
of  the  enemies  that  you  know.  (Men,  dogs,  cats, 
snakes,  hawks,  owls.)  To-morrow  we  shall  see 
how  these  tracks  of  Bunny's  help  some  of  his  ene- 
mies to  catch  him. 

At  the  next  recitation  the  teacher  brings  in  a 


112  Special  Method  in  Science. 

tame  rabbit,  introducing-  it  as  gray  Bunny's  cousin 
who  hops  just  as  gray  Bunny  does,  and  has  ears 
and  eyes  much  like  his,  except  the  color  of  the 
eyes.  The  teacher  takes  the  pictures  called  for 
the  day  before.  Explanations  are  made  of  how 
the  rabbit  makes  the  three  tracks  instead  of  four. 
The  two  front  feet  strike  together,  and  the  two 
hind  feet  come  up  on  the  sides,  striking  a  little 
in  front  of  the  two  front  feet. 

Which  feet  go  first,  the  fore  or  the  hind  feet? 
Which  pair  of  legs  help  him  the  more  in  hopping? 
(Hind  legs.)  How  are  they  fitted  for  helping-  him 
so  much?  (They  are  long  and  strong.)  What 
about  the  front  legs?  (They  are  shorter  and 
weaker.)  How  is  it  that  the  rabbit  can  get  around 
so  quietly?  I  will  hold  him  so  that  you  may  see  if 
you  can  find  out.  (The  soles  of  his  feet  are  cush- 
ioned and  covered  with  hair.)  Why  does  Bunny 
need  to  get  around  so  quietly?  (So  his  enemies 
will  not  hear  him.)  But  we  have  found  out  that 
when  he  hops  he  leaves  what?  (Tracks.)  And  we 
said  yesterday  that  some  of  his  enemies  were 
helped  by  these  tracks  to  catch  him.  What  ene- 
mies? (Men.  They  see  the  tracks  and  follow 
them.)  What  other  enemies  are  guided  by  the 
tracks?  (Dogs.)  How  do  the  tracks  help  them? 
Did  you  ever  see  dogs  hunting  rabbits?  What  did 
they  do?  (Kept  noses  down  to  ground.)  What  do- 
ing? (Smelling  the  tracks — "getting  the  scent.") 
Do  they  need  to  see  the  tracks?   (No.)   Now  what 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  113 

will  Bunny  do  to  get  away  from  the  dogs?  How 
will  he  know  that  they  are  coming"?  (See  them.) 
Has  he  good  eyes  for  seeing  them?  Look  at  them, 
where  are  they?  (On  sides  of  head.)  How  does 
that  help?  (He  can  see  all  around  without  turn- 
ing his  head.)  What  does  he  turn?  (His  eyes;  so 
that  when  he  is  running  he  can  see  the  dogs  back 
of  him.)  What  else  tells  Bunny  that  the  dogs  are 
coming?  (His  ears.)  Are  they  good  ears?  Give 
a  low  bark  in  the  next  room,  Earl.  What  did 
Bunny  do?  (Stuck  up  his  ears.)  Why?  (To  catch 
the  sounds.)  What  else  do  you  notice  about  his 
ears?  (He  can  turn  them  in  any  direction.)  How 
will  this  help  him?  (Even  if  he  cannot  see  the  dog 
be  can  tell  from  what  direction  he  is  coming  with- 
out turning  his  head.) 

Now  that  Bunny  sees  or  hears  the  dog,  what 
will  he  do?  (Run.)  Can  he  go  fast?  How  do  you 
know?  (Have  seen  him.)  (Those  long,  strong  hind 
legs  help  him.)  How  does  he  hold  his  ears  when 
running?  (Down  and  back.)  Why?  ( (a)  So  that 
they  will  be  out  of  his  way  when  running  under 
fences  and  brush,  ib)  So  that  the  air  pressing 
against  them  will  not  hinder  him.  (c)  So  that  he 
can  hear  his  pursuers.) 

In  what  other  way  can  he  get  away  from  the 
dogs?  ( (a)  He  may  glide  into  a  hole  or  hollow 
log.  (6)  Turn  suddenly  when  the  dog  gets  up  to 
him.  The  dog  cannot  turn  so  quickly,  and  not 
expecting  this  turn  in  affairs,  loses  some  time,  the 


114  Special  Method  in  Science. 

rabbit  improving-  it  in  getting-  away,  (c)  Crouch 
down  on  a  log"  or  in  the  bushes.  His  color  being- 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  log  or  bushes,  the  dog- 
will  sometimes  give  up  the  search  after  sniffing 
around  for  a  short  time  within  a  short  distance 
of  him.) 

If  Bunny  escapes  from  the  dogs  he  goes  where? 
(To  his  home.)  Where  is  it?  (Near  some  log-,  under 
bushes,  at  foot  of  tree,  or  in  the  weeds.)  What 
kind  of  a  house?  (A  hollow  in  the  grass  or  weeds. ) 
Is  there  no  roof  to  his  house?  (No.)  Sometimes- 
there  is.  What  kind  of  a  roof  do  you  think  it  is? 
There  is  sometimes  such  a  roof  on  your  house,  over 
the  other  roof.  (Snow.)  How  did  Bunny  get  such 
a  roof?  (Remained  in  his  house,  or /orm,  during  a 
snow  storm  and  let  the  snow  cover  him.)  Does 
snow  make  a  good  roof  for  him?  Why  do  you  have 
warm  covers  on  your  bed  at  night?  (To  keep  us 
warm.)  How  does  it  keep  you  warm?  Is  not  the 
cold  air  all  around  your  bed?  (The  covers  keep 
it  out  and  keep  the  warmth  in.)  What  does  the 
snow  do  for  Bunny?  (Keeps  cold  air  out  and 
warmth  within)  How  can  he  breathe  in  there? 
Did  you  ever  breathe  on  the  ice,  covering  the 
window,  some  cold  morning?  What  did  your  warm 
breath  do  to  the  ice?  (Melted  it.)  What  does 
Bunny's  breath  do  to  the  snow?  (Bunny's  breath 
melts  the  snow  a  little,  so  he  can  get  fresh  air.) 
How  long  will  Bunny  stay  in  his  snow-covered 
home?     (Till  he   gets  hungry.)    Is  he  safe  from 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  115 

his  enemies  now  that  the  dogs  haven't  his  tracks 
to  scent?  (No,  he  is  not.  The  hunters  are  out.) 
Could  they  tell  where  Bunny  is?  How?  Can  you 
see  your  breath  on  a  cold  morning?  What  does  the 
hunter  see  as  he  looks  off  over  the  snow?  (Steam, 
coming  from  Bunny's  home — his  breath.)  Why 
does  the  hunter  want  to  kill  Bunny?  ( {a)  For 
food,  ib)  For  his  fur.  (c)  For  fun.  [What  do  you 
think  of  this?  I  id)  Because  he  eats  the  vegeta- 
bles in  summer,  (e)  He  girdles  the  farmer's  trees 
in  winter. 

Does  it  not  seem  that  with  so  many  enemies 
there  would  be  no  rabbits  left?  This  would  be 
true  were  there  not  so  many  young  rabbits  every 
year,  enough  to  take  the  place  of  those  killed. 

We  have  learned  something  about  Bunny's 
enemies.  Why  do  gardeners  and  fruit  raisers 
often  kill  rabbits?  (Because  they  eat  their  vege- 
tables in  the  summer  and  gnaw  their  fruit  trees 
in  the  winter.)  Why  do  they  gnaw  the  fruit  trees 
in  the  winter?  (Food  is  scarce  then  and  they  like 
the  bark  of  trees.)  Would  they  gnaw  young  or 
old  trees?  (Young  trees,  because  they  have  ten- 
der bark.)  What  kind  of  teeth  must  the  rabbit 
have  to  gnaw  this  bark?  (Sharp  teeth.)  Must 
all  the  teeth  be  sharp?  (The  front  ones,  at  least, 
must  be  so.)  What  else  should  be  true  of  the 
front  teeth  that  they  may  nibble  off  the  bark? 
(They  should  be  long.)  Why?  (So  his  gums  will 
not  be  injured  by  the  wood  of  the  tree.)     Some- 


116  Special  Method  in  Science. 

thing"  else  must  be  true  of  his  teeth,  also.  Think 
of  the  kind  of  food  he  is  getting  and  how  he  is 
getting-  it.  (They  must  be  strong-.)  (Let  us  open 
Bunny's  mouth  — for  tame  Bunny  has  teeth  like 
those  of  wild  Bunny — and  see  if  his  front  teeth 
are  sharp,  long-,  and  strong-.  What  do  you  see? 
(Two  long-,  sharp,  strong-  teeth  in  each  jaw.)  Here 
are  some  of  Bunny's  teeth  (taken  from  a  skull) 
and  here  are  some  knives.  Let  us  see  if  the  front 
and  back  part  of  the  teeth  are  equally  hard.  (The 
front  is  the  harder.)  As  he  nibbles  the  hard  bark 
what  will  become  of  the  softer  back  of  the  tooth? 
(It  will  wear  off  faster  than  the  front  part.)  What 
will  that  do  for  the  tooth?  (Sharpen  it.)  Will 
not  the  teeth  finally  be  worn  down  to  the  g-um? 
(They  would,  did  they  not  keep  growing-  out  from 
the  g-um.)  What  would  happen  to  Bunny  did  he 
not  wear  off  his  teeth?  (They  would  keep  on 
g-rowing  and  become  great  tusks.)  (The  teacher 
might  cite  examples  of  deformity  caused  by  one 
tooth  being  broken  off.)  Do  you  blame  Bunny, 
then,  for  nibbling  something  hard? 

Look  at  Bunny's  mouth.  Do  you  see  anything 
about  it  that  helps  him  in  nibbling  the  trees? 
(The  upper  lip  has  a  deep  cut.  How  does  this 
help?  (The  lip  is  out  of  his  way  when  nibbling, 
and  so  does  not  get  hurt  by  rubbing  against  the 
tree.) 

After  Bunny  nibbles  off  the  food  what  does  he 
do  with  it  before  swallowing  it?  (Chews  it.)  With 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  117 

his  sharp  front  teeth?  (No,  with  chewing-  teeth 
such  as  we  have.)  Let  us  see  if  Bunny  has  such 
teeth?     (He  has.) 

Now  Bunny  has  finished  his  breakfast  or  sup- 
per off  the  bark  of  the  tree.  Has  he  harmed  th  e 
tree  much?  (Killed  it  if  he  has  gnawed  all  the 
way  around.)  How  is  that?  (The  roads  through 
which  the  sap  passes  from  roots  to  leaves,  and 
from  the  leaves  back  to  the  roots,  are  spoiled.) 
[This  presupposes  a  study  of  the  tree.]  And  so 
the  fruit  g-row^er  would  like  Bunny  to  stay  away 
from  his  orchard,  and  when  the  weather  is  warm 
and  there  is  plenty  of  clover  and  vegetables, 
Bunny  is  wil  ling-  to  do  so. 

Has  he  ever  been  to  your  garden?  Did  you  see 
him?  How  did  you  know,  then,  that  he  had  been 
there?  The  parsley,  lettuce,  beets,  etc.,  told  the 
story.  Does  he  like  flowers,  too?  Yes,  and  he  has 
good  taste — a  great  liking-  for  carnations  and  other 
pinks.  Now  this  tame  rabbit  eats  as  does  the  wild 
one,  so  we  will  ask  him  to  show  how  the  g-ray 
rabbit  eats,  since  we  cannot  catch  g"ray  Bunny 
eating-.  We  will  feed  him  parsley  and  carrot  and 
apple.    Children  try  many  different  kinds  of  food 

What  have  we  found  Bunny  using  his  front 
teeth  for?  (Gnawing.)  Now  watch  him.  What 
does  he  do  with  the  parsley?  (Bites  off  a  mouth- 
ful, then  chews  it.)  And  with  the  tender  leaves 
of  the  beet?  (The  same.)  And  what  does  he  do 
with  the  apple?    (Gnaws  off  a  little  at  a  time.) 


118  Special  Method  in  Science. 

Then  he  uses  his  front  teeth  for  what?   (Gnawing- 
and  biting.)   And  his  back  teeth  for  what.   (Chew- 

What  do  you  like  about  gray  Bunny's  looks? 
For  help  in  study  of  rabbit,  see  Dr.  Lockwood's  "Animal 
Memoirs,"  I. 

Children  picture  the  rabbit. 

THE  HORSE. 

We  have  been  learning  many  things  about  some 
of  our  animal  friends.  What  ones?  (The  dog,  the 
cow,  and  the  sheep.)  Can  you  think  of  any  other 
animal  that  does  very  much  for  us?  (The  horse.) 
How  many  of  you  have  horses  at  home?  Tell  me 
some  of  the  things  your  horses  do  for  you.  Tell 
of  some  of  the  heavy  loads  you  have  seen  them 
draw.  Could  men  draw  such  loads?  How  is  it, 
then,  that  horses  can  pull  so  much?  They  are  very 
strong,  much  stronger  than  men.  Do  they  often 
appear  unwilling  to  do  such  heavy  work?  Do 
they  work  very  long  at  a  time?  (Nearly  all  day, 
often.)  After  you  have  worked  a  little  while  you 
become  tired  and  stop  to  rest.  Do  horses  ever 
need  to  rest?  Can  they  stop  whenever  they  wish? 
Why  not?  Do  masters  think  about  their  horses 
becoming  tired?  (Kind  masters  do.)  The  children 
have  probably  noticed  horses  with  heavy  loads 
being  stopped  on  the  road  that  they  might  rest. 
Is  there  any  danger  of  putting  on  too  heavy  loads? 
Children  have  no  doubt  noticed  that  sometimes 
horses  have  more  than  they  can  well  draw.    How 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Frimai-y  Grades.  119 

do  the  horses  show  that  the  load  is  too  heavy? 
(By  trying  very  hard  to  pull  it.)  Must  they  draw 
the  too  heavy  load?  (Yes,  unless  the  master  is 
kind  enough  to  take  some  of  it  off.)  Why  does 
not  the  horse  refuse  to  draw  such  a  load?  His  mas- 
ter would  whip  him  and  make  him  do  it.  What  do 
you  think  of  treating-  horses  this  way?  Sometimes 
horses  refuse  to  try  hard  to  pull  a  load.  Have  you 
ever  seen  horses  refusing  to  go?  What  do  we  call 
this?  (Balking.)  Have  you  noticed  the  size  of  the 
horses  that  are  kept  for  heavy  work?  They  are 
very  large  and  have  strong,  heavy  legs.)  What 
other  things  do  these  horses  do  for  us?  (Draw 
plows,  harrows,  reapers,  etc.)  What  else  do  horses 
do  for  us  besides  drawing  heavy  loads?  (They 
draw  us  in  buggies,  carts,  and  sleighs.)  Why  do 
you  not  drive  cows?  (They  go  too  slowly.)  In 
some  places  they  work  cows.  Here  is  a  picture 
of  some  oxen  taking  a  load  of  children  to  a  picnic. 
Where  oxen  are  used,  it  is  usually  to  draw  heavy 
loads,  not  to  take  people  out  for  the  pleasure  of  a 
ride.  When  you  are  out  riding  do  you  like  to  go 
fast  or  slowly?  Do  the  horses  that  people  drive 
fast  look  just  like  those  they  use  for  heavy  work? 
(No,  they  have  lighter  bodies  and  their  legs  are 
more  slender.)     Why  is  this  better  for  driving? 

Compare  movements  of  the  heavy  Newfound- 
land dog  with  those  of  the  light  rat-terrier  or 
greyhound  to  show  that  heavy  animals  are  slower 
in  their  movements  than  the  lighter  ones.     Does 


120  Special  Method  in  Science. 

the  horse  seem  to  enjoy  g'oing-  out  for  a  drive? 
How  does  he  show  that  he  enjoys  it?  How  do 
horses  know  which  way  you  wish  them  to  turn? 
(If  the  driver  wishes  the  horse  to  turn  to  the  right 
he  pulls  the  right  line.  If  he  wishes  him  to  turn 
to  the  left  he  pulls  the  left  line.  When  he  wishes 
him  to  stop  he  pulls  both  lines  and  says  "whoa.") 
How  can  the  lines  tell  the  horse  where  and  when 
to  turn?  (The  lines  are  fastened  to  a  bit  in  the 
horse's  mouth.)  Of  what  are  bits  made?  How  do 
they  look?  (Children  show  by  a  drawing.)  After- 
ward, if  any  child  has  never  seen  a  bit,  the  teacher 
shows  one,  explaining  how  and  where  the  lines 
are  fastened.  In  what  part  of  the  mouth  is  the 
bit  held?  [Children  observe  that  the  horse  has 
front  teeth  and  back  teeth,  and  that  between  the 
two  groups  of  teeth  there  is  quite  a  long  vacant 
place.  Into  this  the  bit  goes.  Children  show 
place  for  bit  by  diagram  on  the  board.  The 
teacher  has  a  bridle  in  the  class.]  What  is  this  I 
have  here?  (A  bridle.)  What  are  these  pieces  of 
leather  for?  (To  hold  the  bit  in  place.)  Notice 
what  is  fastened  to  the  sides  of  the  bridle.  (Two 
square  or  oblong  leather  pieces.)  Why  are  they 
there?  (To  keep  the  horse  from  seeing  many 
things.  They  might  become  frightened  at  some 
of  these  things.)  Without  these  blinders,  as  these 
pieces  are  called,  could  the  horse  see  things  at 
either  side  without  turning  his  head?  How  is  that? 
His  eyes  are  so  placed  in  his  head  that  he  can  see 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  121 

to  the  front  and  to  the  sides  also.  The  eyes  are 
far  apart  and  are  large.  Would  you  like  to  have 
to  look  straight  ahead  all  of  the  time?  Can  you 
see  thing's  to  the  right  and  left  without  turning 
your  head?  Not  well.  Why  not?  Do  you  suppose 
the  horse  likes  to  have  his  view  of  the  sides  of  the 
road  cut  off?  Some  masters  have  their  bridles 
made  without  blinders.  What  do  you  think  of  that? 

But  horses  with  blinders,  and  horses  wholly 
blind,  sometimes  become  frightened.  What  could 
frigiiten  a  blind  horse?  (Sounds  of  cannon,  fire- 
crackers, barking  of  dogs,  etc.)  How  does  the 
blind  horse  know  of  these?  (His  ears  hear  them.) 
Has  the  horse  good  ears?  Tell  me  how  you  know. 
On  what  part  of  his  head  does  he  carry  his  ears? 
What  shape  are  they?  Did  you  ever  see  him  move 
his  ears?  How?  When?  Why?  Do  the  horse's 
ears  ever  lie  down?  When?  You  may  draw  the 
horse's  head  showing  where  his  eyes  and  ears  are. 
Where  shall  we  draw  the  ears?  (Standing  up  side 
Dy  side  from  the  top  of  his  head.  Look  closely  at 
their  shape.) 

We  all  know  how  to  r/uide  the  horse;  let  us  see 
how  he  pulls  a  buggy  or  sleigh.  Is  it  in  the  same 
way  that  you  pull  your  hand  sleds  and  express 
wagons?  (No,  we  pull  them  with  our  hands.  The 
horse  has  no  hands.)  No,  the  horse's  arms  are  his 
fore  legs,  and  it  cannot  take  hold  of  the  buggy 
with  them,  but  I  have  seen  children  draw  sleds 
very  much  as  your  horse  draws  your   sleigh  or 


122  Special  Method  in  Science. 

buggy.  How  is  the  horse  fastened  to  the  sleigh? 
[Children  explain  from  observation.]  The  pur- 
pose is  to  show  how  the  pulling*  is  mostly  done 
by  the  breast  and  shoulders.  In  the  same  way 
children  sometimes  in  drawing-  a  loaded  hand 
sled,  have  double  ropes  fastened  to  the  two  sides 
of  the  r.ound  in  front,  which  they  put  over  their 
shoulders  so  that  the  weight  rests  there.  Any 
who  have  never  drawn  sleds  in  this  way  are  shown 
how.  Do  horses  get  tired  traveling  all  day  when 
the  load  is  light?  (Yes,  if  driven  fast.)  How  do 
they  show  that  they  are  tired?  (Go  slowly.)  Then 
what  does  the  driver  often  do?  (Whip  them  to 
make  them  go  faster.)  And  what  do  the  horses 
do?  (Go  faster.  They  have  to  do  as  the  driver 
wishes,  and  if  he  does  not  care  for  his  team  they 
will  often  have  a  hard  time.)  How  do  horses  show 
that  they  have  been  driven  too  rapidly?  (They 
are  covered  with  sweat,  even  in  cold  weather, 
and  they  breathe  fast,  the  breath  coming  from 
their  great  nostrils  in  clouds.)  What  care  should 
they  receive  at  the  end  of  their  journey  when 
they  have  been  so  overdriven?  (They  should  be 
wiped  dry  with  a  cloth,  then  covered  with  a 
blanket.  They  should  not  be  given  much  water 
to  drink  at  once,  although  they  are  thirsty,  but 
should  wait  until  they  are  cooled  off.) 

How  else  are  horses  used  beside  to  draw  heavy 
loads  and  take  you  out  riding?  (People  often  ride 
on  their  backs.)     Did  you  ever  ride  horseback? 


lUusiniive  Letioiis  for  Primary  Grades.  123 

Did  the  horse  walk  when  you  were  on  its  back? 
In  what  other  ways  do  horses  sometimes  move 
along?  (Sometimes  trot,  or  pace,  or  gallop. )  How 
do  the  horses'  feet  move  in  trotting?  Children 
observe  that  the  right  fore  foot  and  the  left  hind 
foot  move  forward  together.  How  do  the  horse's 
feet  move  in  pacing?  Children  see  that  the  two 
right  feet  are  raised  at  the  same  time,  then  the 
two  left  feet. 

How  do  horses  gallop?  Children  notice  that 
the  fore  feet  are  lifted  together,  then  the  hind 
feet. 

Can  you  tell  whether  a  horse  is  walking,  trot- 
ting, pacing,  or  galloping,  without  seeing  it  at 
all?  (Yes,  sometimes,  by  hearing  the  sound  of 
its  feet  as  they  come  down  on  the  ground.)  What 
is  it  about  the  foot  that  makes  this  noise?  (Its 
hard  hoof  or  its  shoe.)  What  is  this  hoof?  (The 
horse's  toe-nail.)  How  is  it  different  from  the 
cow's  hoof?  (The  cow  has  two  on  each  foot.  Its 
shape  is  different.)  Of  what  shape  is  the  horse's 
hoof?  Does  it  go  all  the  way  around  the  toe? 
Picture  its  shape  on  the  board.  Where  is  the 
hoof  the  broadest?  Where  narrowest?  If  this  hoof 
is  the  horse's  nail,  on  what  does  a  horse  stand? 
(On  one  toe-nail.)  What  kind  of  toe-nails  must 
these  be  that  can  hold  up  the  heavy  body  of  the 
horse  and  can  stand  being  brought  against  the 
hard  ground  or  pavement?  (They  must  be  strong 
and  hard.)  Should  you  not  think  that  they  would 


124  Special  Method  in  Science. 

wear  off?  Look  at  some  horse's  hoofs.  (The 
lower  part  looks  ragg-ed.)  Do  you  ever  lose  part 
of  your  nails?  (Yes,  mamma  cuts  the  ends  off.) 
Then  do  they  stay  short?  (No,  they  grow  out 
again.)  So  the  horse's  hoofs  or  nails  wear  off  and 
grow  out  again  as  your  nails  do.  It  is  better  for 
the  horse  to  have  his  nails  trimmed,  as  you  have 
yours,  but  sometimes  they  are  allowed  to  grow 
rough  like  those  we  have  noticed. 

How  do  horses  keep  from  slipping  on  ice? 
(They  wear  iron  or  steel  shoes  usually.)  [Teacher 
has  a  shoe  in  the  class.]  How  are  these  shoes  put 
on  to  the  horse?  [Visit  a  blacksmith  shop  if  pos- 
sible.] Does  it  hurt  the  horse  to  have  the  shoes 
nailed  to  his  hoofs?  Does  it  hurt  you  to  have 
your  finger  nails  cut?  Neither  does  it  hurt  the 
horse  to  have  nails  driven  into  his  hoofs.  How 
many  nails  are  put  in?  How  are  they  driven 
through  the  shoes?  [Children  notice  the  holes 
for  nails,  in  the  shoe.]  What  are  these  three 
sharp  pieces — two  at  the  heel  and  one  at  the  toe 
— extending  downward?  (Calks.)  What  are  they 
for?  (The  horse  is  so  heavy  that  as  it  comes  down 
with  its  weight  on  its  shoes,  these  pieces  cut 
deeply  into  the  ice,  keeping  the  horse  from  slip- 
ping.) When  a  horse  is  shod  with  such  sharp 
shoes,  we  say  he  is  rough  shod.  Look  at  the 
tracks  of  horses  on  the  ice.     What  do  you  see? 

In  the  summer  or  during  time  of  good  roads, 
some  horses  wear  smooth  shoes,  like  this — show- 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  125 

ing-  one.  Feel  of  it.  If,  before,  we  said  the  horse 
was  roug-h  shod  we  might  now  say  he  is  how  shod? 
(Smooth  shod.) 

What  else  does  a  horse  use  his  feet  for  beside 
walking-,  running,  etc.  V  (He  strikes  with  them  to 
knock  off  flies.  He  kicks  his  enemies.)  Children 
give  examples.  How  else  does  he  protect  himself? 
(He  bites.) 

We  have  found  that  horses  can  be  driven  in 
winter  without  danger  of  falling.  But  do  they 
not  get  very  cold  without  overcoats?  (They  have 
a  hair  coat.)  Shall  we  call  the  skin  an  under  coat? 
This  is  thick  and  warm.  These  coats  keep  the 
horse  warm  enough  when  traveling.  What  shall 
be  done  for  horses  when  standing  waiting  for  us? 
(They  should  be  covered  with  blankets.)  What 
protection  do  they  need  in  cold  weather,  when  not 
working  or  travelings?  (A  good  warm  stable,  with 
a  straw  bed  to  lie  on.) 

Do  the  horses  wear  the  same  coat  winter  and 
summer?  (In  the  spring-  they  shed  their  old  coat 
and  keep  only  the  new  one  that  began  to  g"row 
out  the  summer  before.  So  they  are  not  dressed 
as  warm  in  summer  as  in  winter.)  Children  relate 
what  they  know  of  the  horse  shedding  his  coat. 
There  is  other  hair  on  the  horse  which  protects 
him  in  summer.  What  is  that?  (His  tail.)  How 
does  he  use  it?  (To  brush  flies  off.)  Does  it  look 
like  the  cow's  brush?  (No,  the  long  hair  is  at  the 
end  of  the  cow's  tail, but  all  the  hairs  of  the  horse's 


]26  Special  Method  in  /Science, 

tail  are  long".  Children  show  difference  by  draw- 
ing's on  the  board.  Where  else  is  the  hair  long"  on 
the  horse?  (On  the  neck.)  What  do  we  call  the 
long  hair  there?  (A  mane.)  How  would  you  like 
the  looks  of  a  horse  without  a  mane? 

We  have  found  that  the  horse  does  a  great  deal 
for  us.  What  makes  him  strong  and  able  to  work? 
(Good  food.)  What  does  the  horse  like  to  get  in 
the  Summer  time?  (Green  grass,  and  he  likes  to 
be  out  in  the  pasture  and  get  it  for  himself.)  How 
does  he  get  the  grass  into  his  mouth?  (By  the  aid 
of  his  thick  lips.)  And  how  does  he  bite  it  off? 
Has  he  or  has  he  not  teeth  in  his  upper  jaw? 
Children  observe  that  he  has.  After  he  has  the 
grass  bitten  off  what  does  he  do?  (Chews  it.) 
Does  he  chew  hay  and  grass  as  much  as  the  cow 
does?  (More.)  Children  observe.  Does  he  chew 
a  cud  as  the  cow  does?  Watch  your  horses  and 
see.  (They  do  not.)  When  this  question  is  set- 
tled they  will  see  that  since  the  horse  does  not 
re-chew  his  grass  or  hay  as  a  cud,  it  is  well  that 
he  chews  it  more  at  first.  Notice  how  his  jaws 
move  in  chewing.  Up  and  down  or  sidewise? 
Have  jaws  of  horse  in  class,  if  possible,  that  the 
children  may  see  how  well  adapted  their  large 
back  teeth  are  for  grinding  wp  the  food. 

What  else  do  horses  eat  besides  grass  and  hay? 
(Straw,  fodder,  oats,  wheat,  corn,  and  carrots.) 
Observe  and  compare  his  manner  of  eating  these 
with  that  of  the  cow.     How  does  the  horse  eat 


Illustrative  Lessons  fur  Primai'y  Grades.  127 

salt?  How  drink  water?  What  other  animals 
drink  in  the  same  way?  What  one  drinks  differ- 
ently? Does  the  horse  drink  much?  How  much? 
How  often  should  he  be  watered?  (Best  to  have 
water  in  the  pasture  so  the  horse  can  g"et  it  when- 
ever he  wishes.) 

How  does  the  horse  let  us  know  when  he  wants 
to  be  fed  or  watered?  (He  whinnies  or  neighs.) 
Tell  of  some  other  times  when  he  whinnies.  (If 
his  mate  is  taken  from  the  field  or  stable  he  whin- 
nies for  it.  That  is  the  way,  too,  the  mother  calls 
her  little  colt.  Horses  sometimes  whinny  for 
their  masters,  too.) 

The  teacher  should  insist  on  the  children  mak- 
ing* the  observations  for  themselves. 

Frequent  reproductions  by  topic  should  be  re- 
quired. Thus:  **Tell  how  the  horses  are  kept 
from  slipping  on  the  ice."  "How  are  they  pro- 
tected from  the  cold?" 

Make  a  drawing  of  the  horse.  Draw  cow, 
horse,  and  dog. 

THE  CHICKEN. 

(Type  of  birds.) 

In  the  story  of  "The  Four  Musicians,"  which 
musician  first  saw  the  light  in  the  robbers' hut? 
(The  rooster.)  How  did  he  hapx)en  to  see  it?  (He 
was  up  in  the  top  of  a  high  tree.)  How  did  he  get 
up  so  high?  (He  flew  to  one  of  the  lower  limbs  of 
the  tree,  and  from  there  to  a  higher  one,  and  so 
on.)    How  do  you  know?    (I  have  seen  chickens 


128  Special  Method  in  Science. 

fly  up  into  trees  and  that  is  the  way  they  always 
did.)  "Why  doesn't  it  fly  directly  to  the  top  of  the 
tree  from  the  ground?  (Its  wings  are  not  strong- 
enough  to  carry  its  heavy  body  so  far  without 
stopping  to  rest.)  Does  a  chicken  have  much  fly- 
ing to  do?  When  does  it  fly?  (To  and  from  its 
roost.)  Where  does  it  roost?  Where  did  the  rooster 
roost  after  his  good  supper  in  the  robbers'  hut? 
Have  you  seen  chickens  fly  at  other  times  than 
those  just  spoken  of?  (Sometimes,  when  they  can 
not  get  through  a  crack, they  will  fly  over  a  fence.) 
How?  [Childrenrepeat  their  observations.]  They 
usually  fly  to  the  top  of  the  fence,  light  there, then 
fly  down  on  the  other  side.  Why  do  they  make 
so  much  noise  with  their  wings?  (It  is  such  hard 
work.) 

Do  you  know  what  is  sometimes  done  to  chick- 
ens to  keep  them  from  flying  over  fences?  (Their 
wing  feathers  are  clipped  on  one  wing.)  How 
does  this  hinder  them  from  flying  so  high?  (They 
cannot  balance  themselves.)  How  does  a  chicken 
fly?  (By  beating  its  wings  against  the  air.)  You 
can  raise  your  heavy  body  a  little  way  from  the 
ground  by  pushing  down  on  two  posts  driven  into 
the  ground.  A  bird  has  no  posts  to  push  against, 
but  it  can  press  against  the  air.  That  is  always 
handy,  too.  [By  the  use  of  a  light  fan,  fanning 
downward  and  outward  rapidly,  the  children  be- 
come conscious  that  there  is  a  resistance  of  the 


lllustratice  Lessons  for  FHmai-y  Grades.  129 

We  do  not  wish  to  g"o  deeply  into  this  subject. 
Perhaps  it  would  be  wise  not  to  touch  upon  it  at 
all,  but  usually  the  interested  children  bring  up 
the  question  and  force  some  explanation  of  Jioiv 
birds  fly.  The  motions  of  the  wings  made  by  the 
chicken  in  flying" — are  they  slow  or  rapid?  In 
raising  its  wing  why  does  not  the  air  above  push 
the  bird  back?  The  chicken  does  not  raise  its 
wing  straight  up,  it  cuts  through  the  air  with  the 
front  of  the  wing,  so,  showing  with  the  fan. 

You  have  seen  the  wing  of  a  chicken  on  the 
dinner  table  and  it  looks  much  smaller  than  when 
on  the  chicken.  Why  is  that?  (It  has  the  feathers 
off.)  [If  possible,  the  teacher  should  have  a  gen- 
tle hen  in  the  class,  also  the  wing  of  a  dressed 
chicken,  and  a  wing  with  feathers  upon  it.  Com- 
pare in  size  the  two  wings.]  Is  this  hen  going  to 
fly  now?  How  do  you  know  she  is  not?  (Her 
wings  are  not  spread.)  The  teacher  extends  and 
contracts  gently  the  wing  of  the  hen  a  few  times. 
Does  that  make  you  think  of  anything  you  some- 
times see?  (A  fan.)  When  does  the  chicken  close 
its  fans?  When  it  does  not  wish  to  use  them  in 
flying?  Why  does  it  not  keep  them  stretched  out 
all  of  the  time?  (They  would  be  in  its  way.) 
When?  Can  you  show  with  your  arms  how  the 
hen  closes  her  wings  or  arms?  What  does  she  do 
when  she  wishes  to  fly?  [Children  relate  their 
observations.]  Show  how,  starting  with  your 
arms  in  the  position  of  the  closed  wings.     This 


130  Special  Method  in  Science. 

will  require  close  observation.  Call  attention  to 
the  position  of  the  thumb  or  forefinger  in  the 
dressed  wing-.]  Do  your  arms  now  look  like  the 
chicken's  spread  wing"?  (No,  the  skin  that  holds 
the  two  parts  of  the  hen's  arm,  or  wing,  together, 
is  wanting  in  our  arm.)  What,  then,  can  you  do 
with  your  arms  that  the  hen  cannot  do  with  hers? 
(Stretch  them  out  straight.)  Picture  on  the  board 
John's  arm  stretched  out.  Beside  it  picture  the 
dressed  wing  stretched  out.  What  is  this  wing 
mostly  made  of?  (Skin  and  bones.)  Can  you 
think  of  any  reason  why  it  may  be  well  that  there 
is  no  more  meat  on  it?  (The  meat  would  make 
the  wing  heavy.  She  would  tire  holding  out  a 
heavy  wing  in  flying.) 

But  the  hen  has  besides  the  skin  and  bones, 
what?  (Feathers.)  Do  these  help  or  hinder  her 
flying?  (She  spreads  out  these  feathers  and  strikes 
against  much  more  air  than  the  naked  wing  could 
press  against.  She  could  not  rise  at  all  with  the 
naked  wing.)  Let  us  look  at  one  of  these  large 
wing  feathers  and  see  if  we  think  it  is  the  kind 
the  chicken  needs  for  flying.  Lift  it.  (It  is  so 
light  that  I  cannot  feel  its  weight.)  Does  the 
chicken  need  light  feathers?  Why?  Is  this  feather 
straight?  (No,  it  curves  downward  a  little.)  Is 
this  well?  The  feathers  hold  the  air  under  better 
than  they  would  if  they  were  flat.  [They  will  notice 
the  difference  in  pressure  of  a  concave  and  a  flat 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  131 

fan.]  How  many  of  these  long"  feathers?  Does  it 
need  so  many? 

Pull  a  feather  from  this  wing,  Elta.  [The 
feather  comes  only  after  hard  pulling".]  Is  it  well 
that  they  are  fastened  so  tightly?  Why?  We  will 
look  closely  at  these  feathers.  This  middle  part 
is  called  the  shaft.  Each  side  is  called  a  web. 
Is  the  web  of  the  same  width  on  both  sides?  (No- 
tice how  the  feathers  are  arranged  on  the  wing.) 
The  narrow  web  of  one  covers  the  wide  web  of  its 
neighbor.  Only  one  side  needs  to  be  long  and  the 
chicken  wishes  to  have  as  light  wings  as  possible, 
as  we  have  said  before.  Can  you  think  of  any 
reason  for  having  the  narrow  web  over  the  wide 
one?  Examine  the  wing.  Would  it  do  just  as  well 
to  have  the  wide  web  over  the  narrow? 

Notice  one  little  piece  of  the  web.  That  is 
called  a  barb.  Separate  carefully  these  barbs. 
(They  cling  closely  together.)  After  you  have 
separated  them,  smooth  them  down.  What  do  you 
notice?  (They  cling  as  before.)  Hold  the  feather 
up  to  the  light  as  you  slowly  separate  these  barbs. 
What  do  you  see?  (Each  barb  has  little  teeth  on 
both  sides.  These  teeth  fit  into  those  of  the  barb 
next  to  it.)  Is  that  well  for  the  chicken?  (Yes, 
if  the  feathers  let  the  air  right  through,  it  would 
leave  nothing  to  press  against  and  the  chicken 
would  not  rise.)  What  do  you  notice  above  these 
long  feathers?  Of  what  use  are  these  feathers? 
Above  these, 'What?    Can  you  think  how  else  the 


132  Special  Method  in  Science. 

chicken  is  helped  by  having-  feathers  that  shut 
out  the  air?  (Its  body  is  kept  warmer.)  How  are 
the  little  chickens  helped  by  such  feathers?  (The 
wings  cover  the  little  chicks  at  night  and  at  other 
times,  and  so  keep  them  warm.) 

Are  all  the  barbs  on  the  hen's  feathers  hooked 
together?  [Examine  one  of  the  small  feathers.] 
On  which  part  of  the  feather  are  the  barbs  hooked 
together?  (On  the  part  that  is  on  the  outside  of 
the  chicken.  The  part  that  is  covered  is  softer — 
more  like  down.)  How  are  the  small  feathers 
arranged  on  the  hen?  They  all  point  backward 
from  the  head,  and  grow  one  over  another  like 
the  shingles  on  a  house,  only  closer  together. 
The  barbed  part  is  on  the  outside.)  Is  this  well 
for  the  hen?  Why?  (It  makes  a  very  thick  cover, 
keeping  out  the  cold,  and  also  sheds  the  rain  quite 
well,  the  rain  running  off  the  end  of  one  feather 
onto  the  next,  and  so  on  until  it  drops  to  the 
ground.)  Have  all  the  feathers  barbs?  Where  do 
you  find  feathers  without  barbs?  Notice  how  a 
hen  stands  in  the  rain.  (With  her  tail  drooping, 
as  if  to  let  the  rain  have  a  chance  to  run  off  by 
the  way  of  her  tail  feathers.)  In  what  other  way 
is  the  chicken  helped  to  keep  dry  in  rainy  weather? 
Have  you  noticed  what  a  hen  sometimes  does  dur- 
ing a  rain?  (She  oils  her  feathers  so  they  will 
shed  the  rain.)  Will  oil  shed  w^ater?  How  do  you 
know?  Have  oiled  paper  in  the  class.  Pour  water 
on  it  and  see  what  happens.     Where  does  the 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Pmnary  Grades.  133 

chicken  g-et  the  oil?  (From  a  little  sack  just 
above  the  tail.)  [Show  on  dressed  chicken.]  Where 
does  the  oil  come  out?  How  does  the  hen  get  it 
out?  (With  her  bill.)  How  can  she  reach  away 
around  there  with  her  bill?  (Her  neck  is  long"  and 
limber,  and  she  can  twist  it  around  easily.)  How 
does  she  get  the  oil  out?  (Presses  down  on  the 
sack  with  her  bill,  and  it  comes  out  as  does  the 
juice  when  you  press  on  an  orange  in  which  you 
have  made  a  hole.)  How  does  she  carry  the  oil  to 
the  feathers?  With  her  bill?  How  put  it  on  the 
feathers?  (She  passes  each  feather  which  she 
wishes  to  oil  between  her  two  mandibles.) 

Her  bill  is  the  finest  comb  the  hen  has.  But 
her  hair  combing  is  no  queerer  than  her  bath. 
Did  you  ever  see  a  hen  bathing?  No?  Did  you  ever 
see  a  hen  in  an  ash  pile  or  in  a  pile  of  dust  flutter- 
ing around?  Just  what  did  she  do?  [Children 
find  out  if  they  cannot  tell.]  This  is  her  bath. 
Does  she  seem  to  enjoy  it?  What  does  she  do 
when  she  is  through  her  dust  bath?  Change  her 
clothes?  No,  but  she  shakes  out  the  dust  and 
preens  her  feathers.  (Smooths  her  old  dress.) 
How?  Does  the  hen  never  change  her  dress?  Have 
you  not  seen  many  feathers  lying  around  the  hen 
house?  Did  something  pull  them  out?  Do  they 
usually  come  out  easily?  How  does  this  happen 
then?  (Little  by  little  she  is  changing  her  dress. 
An  old  feather  falls  out  and  a  new  one  grows  in 
to  take  its  place.  Sometimes  a  hen  loses  the  whole 


134  Special  Method  in  Science. 

of  her  tail  at  one  time.)  When  does  this  chang-ing 
of  dress  happen?  (Late  In  the  summer.)  Is  this  a 
g-ood  time?  Why?  How  do  the  little  new  feathers 
look  when  they  first  come  in?  What  do  we  call 
them?  (Pin  feathers.)  Examine  these  carefully 
if  they  can  be  found  when  this  is  studied.  Why 
does  the  hen  need  to  change  her  dress  at  all?  (The 
feathers  wear  out  and  become  much  mussed.)  Is 
there  any  order  in  shedding  her  coat?  [When  one 
wing*  feather  comes  out,  its  mate  on  the  opposite 
side  is  said  to  fall  out  also.  Watch  and  see  if  this 
is  so.]  Are  the  dresses  of  the  little  chickens  like 
their  mother's?  (No,  they  are  covered  with  down.) 
How  is  the  down  different  from  feathers?  Chil- 
dren see.  (Down  has  no  shaft  and  web.)  Before 
going  farther  the  children  tell  what  they  have 
learned  about  chickens  flying,  their  wings,  and 
the  feathers. 

Have  any  of  the  other  animals  that  we  have 
studied  feather  coats?  What  kind  of  coats  did 
they  have?  The  shepherd  dog",  cow,  and  horse 
have  hair  coats,  the  sheep  a  wool  coat. 

Where  did  we  find  the  rooster  in  our  story, 
roosting-  at  first?  Where  later?  Where  do  the 
chickens  that  you  know  roost?  Why  should  they 
leave  the  ground?  (Sometimes  the  ground  is  cold 
and  damp.  When  on  a  high  roost  the  chickens  are 
not  so  apt  to  be  disturbed  or  killed  by  rats,  skunks, 
dogs,  etc.)  How  do  they  hold  onto  the  roost?  [If 
no  one  in  the  class  can  tell,  the  children  may  be 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primai-y  Grades.  135 

given  time  to  find  out  for  themselves  by  -watching 
the  chickens  at  home.  J  (Its  three  front  toes  curve 
around  the  roost  in  front — this  ivay — (showing- with 
the  fing-ers)  while  its  hind  toe  reaches  around  be- 
hind and  steadies  it.)  But  when  the  hen  is  asleep 
will  she  not  stop  holding  on  and  fall  off?  Notice 
a  hen  as  she  raises  her  foot  in  w^alking  slow^ly. 
How  do  the  toes  look?  They  curl  up  very  much 
as  if  holding  to  a  perch.  When  do  her  toes  spread 
out?  (Only  when  her  feet  come  down  on  the  flat 
ground.  At  other  times  her  feet  are  in  a  position 
to  hold  onto  a  perch.  And  the  weight  of  her  body 
only  tightens  her  hold.)  Whei^  on  the  perch  do  the 
hens  stand  up  all  the  time  or  do  they  sit?  Find 
out.  Do  they  close  their  eyes?  As  you  do?  They 
have  three  lids  to  each  eye.  What  is  the  color  of 
this  third  lid?  Notice  Jioiu  it  closes  over  the  eye. 
At  what  time  of  day  do  chickens  go  to  their 
high  beds?  (About  as  soon  as  the  sun  goes  down.) 
Do  we  hear  from  them  at  all  during  the  night? 
(The  old  rooster  crows  occasionally.)  How  early 
in  the  morning  do  chickens  get  up?  (In  the  sum- 
mer time,  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  be  light.  In  the 
winter,  they,  like  ourselves,  hate  to  get  up  into 
the  cold,  so  they  stay  on  their  beds  sometimes 
until  after  sunrise.)  Can  you  think  of  any  other 
reason  why  they  do  not  get  up,  (or  get  down, 
rather,)earlier  in  the  winter?  They  have  not  so 
much  work  to  do.  There  are  no  bugs,  or  worms, 
or  vegetables  to  which  they  may  help  themselves. 


136  Special  Method  in  Science, 

What  do  they  eat,  in  the  winter  time?  Where  do 
they  get  it?  Did  you  ever  notice  how  the  hen  eats 
the  corn?  [The  teacher  can  feed  the  one  she  has 
at  school.]  What  did  she  do?  (Picked  up  the 
kernels  very  fast,  with  her  bill.)  What  kind  of  a 
bill  has  she?  (It  is  hard.)  Is  that  well?  Why? 
(It  is  strong-.)  Why  does  she  need  a  strong  bill? 
(It  is  pointed.)  Why  is  this  a  good  thing?  The 
upper  mandible  is  curved.  Is  it  better  so?  Why? 
Notice  how  the  forefinger  is  curved  in  picking  up 
a  pin  from  the  floor.  Notice  the  shape  of  the 
lower  mandible.  What  do  you  think  of  that?  The 
bill  has  sharp  edges.  Is  this  well?  (Yes,  the 
chicken  can  cut  off  pieces  of  leaves,  grass,  etc., 
very  easily  with  such  sharp  knives.  She  can  cut 
them  off  as  fast  as  she  can  swallow  them.)  What 
other  animals  did  we  find  swallowing  food  very 
rapidly?  (Cow  and  sheep.)  But  was  this  the  last 
we  heard  of  this  poorly  chewed  food?  (No,  they 
re-chewed  their  grass,  hay,  etc.,  as  a  cud,)  Have 
you  ever  seen  chickens  chewing  a  cud?  (They  do 
not.) 

Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  why  a  chicken  does 
not  chew  its  food.  With  what  do  we  chew  our 
food?  (Teeth.)  What  kind  of  teeth  has  the 
chicken?  Very  carefully  open  the  hen's  mouth 
and  the  children  will  see  that  she  has  no  teeth. 
Then  why  does  the  chicken  not  chew  its  food? 
What  becomes  of  the  corn  that  it  takes  into  its 
mouth?     (It  swallows  it.)    How  many  have  ever 


lllustralive  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  137 

watched  the  dressing  of  a  chicken?  Did  you  see 
its  croj)?  Feel  right  here  on  our  hen.  That  is  its 
crop  that  you  feel.  The  food  that  it  swallows 
goes  first  into  that.  I  have  here  the  crop  of  a 
chicken.  We  will  open  it  and  see  what  we  find. 
[There  is  nothing-  repulsive  about  this  to  the  chil- 
dren, as  all  have  seen  dressed  chickens,  and  many 
have  watched  the  process  of  preparing  them  for 
the  table.]  Now  the  corn,  grass,  etc.,  stay  in  the 
crop  until  they  are  very  well  soaked,  then  they 
pass  on  to  the  gizzard.  Do  you  know  the  gizzard? 
It  is  the  chicken's  stomach.  Here  is  one.  Feel 
of  it.  It  is  very  thick  and  tough.  We  will  open 
it  carefully.  [Peel  so  as  to  leave  the  inner  sack 
intact.]  What  kind  of  a  coat  is  this  outer  coat? 
(Strong  and  thick.)  We  will  open  the  inner  coat. 
What  do  you  see?  (The  food  ground  fine,  and 
some  pebbles.)  Take  hold  of  this  inner  sack.  (It 
is  tough  and  elastic.)  Where  is  the  door  through 
which  the  soaked  corn  comes  into  the  stomach? 
When  it  gets  inside  of  this  mill  it  is  tossed  back 
and  forth  with  the  stones  and  becomes  very  fine, 
as  you  see.  From  this  food  the  chicken's  blood, 
flesh,  fat  and  feathers  are  made,  and  its  muscles 
and  bones  are  repaired. 

Name  other  things  that  the  chicken  eats  in  the 
winter.  And  in  the  summer  time  what?  Where 
do  they  find  the  bugs,  spiders,  etc.?  How  catch 
them?  [Children  watch  chickens  and  see.]  Where 
do  the  chickens  find  the  worms?  (In  the  ground.) 


138  Special  Method  in  Science, 

How  get  them  out?  (With  their  sharp  toes.)  Did 
you  ever  see  a  chicken  scratch  for  worms  or  seeds? 
How  did  it  do  the  scratching,  with  one  or  both 
feet?  Find  out  Then  when  it  found  something- 
good  to  eat  what  did  it  do?  (Picked  it  up  quickly 
with  its  bill  and  swallow^ed  it.)  What  if  a  mamma 
with  her  little  chickens  finds  something  good? 
(She  calls  her  little  chickens  with  some  quick 
clucks  and  lets  them  have  what  she  has  found. 
When  tJiey  get  over  being  hungry  she  feeds  her- 
self.) How  can  she  see  the  little  seeds  and  bugs? 
(She  has  bright  eyes.)  Where  are  they?  Is  this 
well  for  her?  Why?  What  shape  are  these  eyes? 
Of  the  same  color  in  all  hens? 

We  have  spoken  of  the  hen's  food,  but  not  of 
her  drink.  What  does  she  drink?  How?  (Puts 
her  bill  into  the  water  and  then  raises  her  head.) 
Does  her  bill  move  when  in  the  water?  What  is 
she  doing?  (Pilling  it.)  Why  does  she  raise  it? 
(To  let  the  water  run  down  her  throat.) 

How  do  you  think  the  rooster  that  belonged 
to  the  band  traveled?  (Walked.)  As  we  said  be- 
fore, chickens  fly  but  little.  On  what  do  they 
walk?  (Their  toes.)  About  what  other  animal 
that  walks  on  his  toes  have  we  talked?  (The 
shepherd  dog.)  Does  the  rooster  walk  as  the  shep- 
herd dog  does?  (No,  it  walks  on  the  toes  of  two 
feet,  the  dog  on  the  toes  of  four  feet.)  On  how 
many  toes  does  the  chicken  step.  (Examine  tracks 
in  snow  or  mud.)     Does  the  hind  toe  help  any  in 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  139 

walking-?  Of  what  use  is  it?  Are  the  front  toes 
all  of  the  same  length?  Which  is  the  longest? 
Why  is  it  well  that  the  chicken  has  long  toes?  (If 
his  toes  were  very  short  his  body  would  more 
easily  tip  over.)  Are  their  long  nails  in  the  way 
when  walking?  Why  not?  Look  at  the  base  of  the 
front  toes.  (A  little  web  is  there.)  Why?  What 
keeps  their  toes  from  being  hurt  by  stones,  rough 
dirt,  stubble,  etc.  ?  (They  are  covered  by  tough, 
hard  rings.)  This  long  part  from  the  toes  up  to 
the  joint  is  the  chicken's  heel.  Is  the  heel  naked? 
No,  covered  by  plates  of  tough,  hard  skin.  Have 
you  ever  seen  any  chickens  with  feathers  on  the 
heel  and  toes?  Notice  how  tiny  are  the  little 
chicken's  toes?  Can  they  get  around  well? 

Did  you  ever  call  the  chickens  to  feed  them? 
Did  they  hear  you?  Then  what  did  they  do?  How 
can  the  chickens  hear  when  we  call?  Have  they 
ears?  Did  you  ever  see  them?  [Very  likely  the 
children  may  never  have  thought  of  a  chicken's 
ears.]  The  teacher  calls  attention  to  the  ears  on 
the  tame  hen,  or  better,  the  children  find  them. 
Why  is  it  well  that  her  ears  are  so  small?  Why  do 
the  ears  need  to  be  thus  protected? 

It  is  said  that  hen's  scent  is  g^ood,  as  well  as 
her  hearing.  How  can  we  find  out  if  this  is  so? 
Where  is  this  hen's  nose.  (The  children  will  find 
its  nostrils,  quite  likely.)  Are  they  protected? 

Now  look  at  this  hen  and  tell  me  what  you  like 
about  her  looks.  (Her  feathers  are  pretty.)  What 


140  Special  Method  in  Science. 

is  it  that  you  admire  about  her  feathers?  What 
else  do  you  think  is  pretty  about  the  hen?  (She 
wears  a  pretty  red  comb  on  top  of  her  head.)  How 
do  you  like  the  looks  of  the  little  chicks?  (They 
are  cunning-.)  How  are  they  dressed?  (In  fluffy 
down.)  With  their  round  bodies  and  heads,  and 
tiny  wing's  and  bill,  and  bright  little  eyes  they 
make  a  beautiful  sight. 

Where  did  these  little  chicks  come  from?  (From 
eggs.)  How  do  you  know?  (Before  the  chickens  are 
hatched,  the  mother  hen  must  sit  on  the  eg-gs  three 
weeks,  keeping-  them  warm  all  the  time,  or  they  are 
kept  warm  in  an  incubator.)  How  does  the  hen  get 
food  and  drink?  (She  leaves  the  nest  just  long 
enough  to  get  food  and  water.)  Would  you  know 
a  sitting  hen  were  you  to  meet  one?  How?  When 
the  little  chicks  are  ready  to  leave  the  shell  who 
opens  their  shell  door  for  them?  (They  do.)  How? 
(Notice  the  little  drill  on  the  bill.)  Do  you  see  it 
on  the  bills  of  the  older  chickens?  At  what  time 
of  the  year  do  these  little  chicks  come  into  the 
world?  (In  warm  weather,  usually,  in  spring  or 
summer.)  Why  not  in  cold  weather?  How  do 
they  get  a  living  when  young?  How  many  little 
chicks  has  the  mother  often  to  scratch  for?  Does 
she  complain  about  her  hard  work?  (No,  she  likes 
it.)  How  does  she  call  her  little  chicks  when  she 
finds  a  nice  worm?  Does  she  talk  with  them  as 
she  walks  out?  What  does  she  say?  And  how 
do  the  little    chicks  answer  her?     (By  a  happy 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades,  141 

little  "peep,  peep.")  But  when  one  gets  out  of 
sight  of  its  mother  or  gets  into  trouble?  (Then  it 
cries  a  loud,  long,  lonesome  wail,  until  its  mamma 
hears  it  and  runs  to  it,  or  some  person  comes  to 
help  it.  It  is  a  good  thing  a  chicken  can  let  us 
know  when  it  is  in  trouble.) 

What  kind  of  a  sound  does  the  mother  make 
when  she  sees  a  hawk  in  the  sky  or  a  snake  in  the 
grass?  What  does  this  sound  tell  the  little  chick- 
ens to  do?  (To  hide  in  the  grass.)  Does  the 
mother  hide,  too?  (No,  she  is  ready  to  fight  for 
her  babies  if  there  is  need  of  it.)  How  can  she 
fight?  (With  her  bill,  wings,  and  feet.)  Did  you 
ever  see  her  fight  an  enemy?  Tell  about  it. 
Teacher  also  relates  instances. 

How  old  are  the  little  chickens  when  the  feath- 
ers begin  to  grow?  Where  do  you  first  notice 
these  new  feathers  growing?  How  big  are  the 
little  roosters  when  they  begin  to  crow?  How 
well  do  they  crow?  Tell  how  they  look  when 
trying  to  crow. 

Review  the  life  of  the  little  chick  from  the  time 
the  hen  goes  on  to  the  nest  to  begin  her  sitting, 
up  to  the  time  when  the  feathers  begin  to  grow. 

How  else  are  eggs  used  besides  for  sitting? 
Children  tell  of  the  many  uses  of  eggs.  How  do  we 
know  that  a  hen  has  laid  an  egg?    (She  cackles.) 

Various  drawings  are  made  from  time  to  time. 
The  old  hen  and  a  little  chick  are  represented 
side  by  side,  showing  the  difference  in  size. 


142  Special  Method  in  Science. 

Frequent  reproductions  are  given  by  the  chil- 
dren on  topics  assigned  by  the  teacher  as:  "Tell 
how  the  mother  hen  protects  her  babies."  "Tell 
how  the  hen  cares  for  her  feathers." 

THE  ROBIN. 

(By  comparison  with  the  chicken.) 

We  have  been  studying"  about  a  large  bird  that 
sings  but  little, and  whose  song  is  not  very  sweet. 
What  bird  is  that?  (The  chicken.)  Now  we  shall 
find  out  all  we  can  about  one  of  our  sweeter  sing- 
ers, a  much  smaller  bird,  but  one  that  we  see 
almost  as  often  these  warm  days.  What  one  do 
you  think  it  is?  (The  robin.)  [Each  child  should 
be  encouraged  to  watch  one  pair  of  robins  all 
through  the  season.  The  study  in  school  will 
give  them  an  understanding  of  what  they  are  to 
look  for,  and  a  desire  to  continue  the  observations 
there  inaugurated.  The  study  of  one  pair  of  birds 
will  be  likely  to  lead  to  a  liking  for  the  work, 
which  at  least  w^ill  add  much  to  the  child's  enjoy- 
ment of  nature.]  What  kind  of  looking  bird  is  a 
robin?  -  Can  you  tell  the  papa  bird,  or  male,  from 
the  mamma  bird,  or  female?  (The  female  appears 
to  be  the  larger,  plumper,  of  the  two,  and  is 
lighter  in  color  than  the  male.)  [By  a  little  prac- 
tice, when  out  with  the  teacher,  the  children  will 
learn  to  tell  the  two  apart  quite  readily.] 

What  have  you  seen  the  robin  doing?  (Sing- 
ing, eating,  building  its  nest,  etc.)  Where  was  it 
when  it  sang?    How  could  it  hold  onto  the  branch? 


Illustrative  Lessons  ^or  Primary  Grades.  143 

I  Study  of  its  toes  and  comparison  with  those  of 
the  chicken.]  How  did  it  stand  as  it  sang-?  What 
was  its  song?  Has  it  more  than  one?  [Encourage 
children  to  imitate  its  songs.]  What  time  during 
the  day  do  robins  sing?  Find  out.  Do  both  the 
male  and  female  sing?     Notice. 

What  have  you  seen  it  eating?     Name  all  of 
the  thing's  that  you  know  robins  to  eat.     (Bugs 
and  other  insects,  spiders,  grubs,  worms,  berries, 
early  cherries,  crumbs.)    Where  does  it  find  bugs? 
(On  trees,  the  ground,  fences,  etc.)     How  can  it 
tell  where  they  are?     (Its  large,  round  eyes  are 
very  sharp.)   How  does  it  pick  them  up?  (With  its 
sharp,  pointed  bill.)    Have  you  ever  seen  it  doing 
this?  Tell  what  it  did.   [If  the  children  have  not 
noticed  much  about  it,  set  them  at  work  observing 
and  have  them  relate  their  observations  in  class 
often.]     On  what  trees  have  you  seen  the  robin? 
Have  you  seen  caterpillers  or  insects  on  fruit  trees 
or  berry  bushes?     [The  children  have  quite  likely 
noticed  "worms'  nests"  on  trees.]     What  harm  do 
these  do  to  the  fruit  and  bushes?    Have  you  seen 
wormy  apples,  cherries,  or  plums?     The  insects 
and  grubs  on  the  trees  make  the  fruit  wormy. 
[It  might  be  well  to  explain  how.  J   Have  you  ever 
noticed  any  other  harm  they  do  to  trees?      Some- 
times they  eat  leaves  of  trees  and  bushes.     How, 
then,  do  you  like  to  have  caterinllars,  grubs,  and 
insects  on  the  trees?    What  will  help  us  to  get 
rid  of  them?    Do  the  robins  eat  many?    [Watch  a 


144  Special  Method  in  Science. 

robin  a  half  hour.]  (They  eat  and  feed  their  young 
every  day  many  more  insects,  etc.,  than  you  can 
count,  even  though  you  can  count  to  one  hundred.) 
What  do  the}^  do  with  the  worms?  (Beat  them  on 
the  ground  with  their  bills  sometimes,  until  they 
are  dead.) 

While  robins  like  best  of  all,  insects  and  grubs, 
they  do  eat  fruit,  as  you  have  said.  What  fruit 
do  they  seem  to  like  best  of  all?  (Early  cherries.) 
Did  you  ever  think  that  they  earn  the  cherries 
they  eat?  How?  What  would  become  of  our  cher- 
ries if  the  robins  and  other  birds  were  to  stay  out 
of  the  trees  all  the  spring.  (The  cherries  would 
be  so  wormy  w^e  could  not  eat  them.)  Do  you 
think  they  earn  a  share  of  the  cherries?  How  do 
people  treat  them  when  they  go  among  the  ripe 
cherries?  What  do  you  think  of  that  treatment? 
When  let  alone  do  the  birds  seem  to  enjoy  the 
ripe  cherries?  What  do  they  say?  "Sweet! 
sweet!"  in  high  tones.  Hoiv  do  they  eat  the  cher- 
ries? How  do  you  know?  (The  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  suggests  that  the  Rus- 
sian mulberry  be  planted  near  the  cherry  trees. 
It  fruits  at  the  same  time  as  the  early  cherry  and 
the  birds  prefer  its  fruit.) 

When  getting  spiders  or  bugs  from  the  ground, 
how  do  they  get  around? 

Did  you  ever  see  them  gathering  berries?  What 
did  they  do?  [The  teacher  must  be  careful  that 
the  points—every  one — left  over  for  study,  are 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primai-y  Grades.  145 

called  up  many  times  in  the  class.  In  so  far  as 
these  questions  result  in  close  observations  on 
the  part  of  the  children,  is  the  teacher's  work  a 
success.] 

Much  of  the  food  that  the  robin  g-athers  is  not 
for  itself.  How  do  you  know?  Where  are  its  ba- 
bies? (In  a  nest.)  Where  is  the  robin's  nest  built? 
(Sometimes  in  an  apple  tree;  it  builds  in  other 
trees,  also.)  In  what  part  of  the  tree?  (In  the 
crotch  or  in  the  angle  formed  by  two  branches.) 
Can  you  think  of  any  reason  why  they  may  like  to 
build  in  apple  trees?  (Some  of  their  food  is  handy 
there.)  Of  what  shape  is  the  robin's  nest?  Of  what 
built?  [The  teacher  should  have  several  robins' 
nests  gathered  in  the  fall,  after  the  robins  have 
flown.]  The  typical  robin's  nest  is  made  up  of 
three  parts;  the  outside  of  weeds,  roots,  straw, 
and  small  sticks,  woven  together;  the  middle  of 
mud,  held  together  by  some  fine  material;  the  in- 
side of  g'rass,  with  sometimes  a  few  hen  feathers 
and  moss.  There  are  many  variations  from  this 
type  as  to  material,  occasionally  one  being  found 
with  no  mud  wall;  and  the  shape  is  not  always 
round.  Which  made  the  nest?  (The  mother  bird, 
or  both.)  What  did  the  male  do  when  the  female 
built  alone?  (He  watched  the  nest  and  sang",  and 
sometimes  went  to  meet  the  female,  when  return- 
ing- with  straw,  etc.)  How  much  did  she  bring  at  a 
time.  (A  mouthful.)  Then  her  mate  watched  her 
closely  while  she  wove  the  material  into  the  nest.) 


146  Special  Method  in  Science. 

[This  should  not  be  told  the  children.  We  have 
ho  rig"ht  to  destroy  their  pleasure  derived  from 
finding  these  thing's  out  for  themselves.]  How 
could  the  mother  give  the  mud  this  shape?  (She 
sat  down  on  her  nest  and  pressed  her  breast 
against  it,  now  here,  now  there.  You  could  see 
her  tail  moving  round  and  round  as  she  molded 
her  nest.)  How  did  she  get  the  coarse  material 
in  shape  for  the  outside?  (With  her  bill  and  claws.) 
Her  claws  and  toes  are  her  hands.)  [Study  of 
these  as  adapted  to  grasping  and  holding  if  the 
teacher  has  a  live  robin.  If  not,  it  is  enough  to 
know  that  she  does  use  her  toes  for  fingers.] 
How  long  does  it  take  to  build  the  nest?  (Three 
or  four  days;  sometimes  less.)  When  her  nest  is 
all  done,  what  happens?  (She  lays  some  eggs.) 
How  many?  (One  on  each  day  until  from  two  to 
six  are  laid.)  Are  these  eggs  as  large  as  hen's 
eggs?  (They  are  about  the  size  of  the  little  candy 
Easter  eggs.)  Of  what  color.?  (Bluish  green.) 
Is  that  a  good  color  for  them?  Why?  Color  re- 
sembles that  of  the  leaves  of  the  tree,  so  the  eggs 
are  not  readily  noticed.  [Have  some  candy  Eas- 
ter eggs  of  the  same  color  and  size  as  the  robin's 
eggs.  Children  should  be  discouraged  from  tak- 
ing eggs  from  a  bird's  nest.  During  the  drawing 
recitation  the  children  might  mold  robins'  nests 
from  clay,  and  put  a  few  little  clay  eggs  into  the 
nest.] 


lllus  rative  Lessoiis  for  Pnmary  Grades.  147 

Does  anything-  ever  disturb  these  eggs?  (Some- 
times bluejays,  crows,  blackbirds,  or  owls  go  to 
the  robin's  nest  and  steal  all  of  the  eggs.)  What 
if  the  robins  should  see  one  of  these  birds  near  the 
nest?  (They  would  raise  a  terrible  cry,  call  their 
neighbors,  and  flutter  about  until  the  bird  might 
be  g"lad  to  leave.) 

Are  the  robins  ever  disturbed  while  on  their 
nests?  (Sometimes  at  night  an  ow^l  will  go  to  the 
nest,  snatch  off  the  mother  with  its  bill,  then  eat 
up  the  eg"gs,  or  even  the  baby  birds.)  Sometimes 
in  the  daytime  a  blacksnake  will  climb  the  tree, 
scare  off  the  mother  bird,  then  steal  the  eggs  or 
baby  birds.  What  do  the  parents  do  about  this? 
(They  fly  all  around  the  snake  and  try  to  peck  it 
and  drive  it  away,  but  it  is  not  afraid  of  the  old 
birds,  and  sometimes  catches  them,  too.) 

Do  you  know  of  anything"  else  that  steals 
robins'  eg-gs?  (Sometimes  thoughtless  or  cruel 
boys  take  them.  They  have  not  the  excuse  that 
the  owl,  crow,  and  snake  have,  for  boys  do  not 
need  the  eggs  at  all.  The  robins  cannot  hurt  the 
boys — defend  their  nests  against  them.  The  boys 
know  this,  so  they' take  the  eggs.)  What  do  you 
think  of  that? 

What  does  the  mother  do  with  the  eggs  if  they 
are  spared  to  her?  (She  sits  on  them.)  How  long? 
(About  eleven  days.)  Does  she  never  leave  the 
nest?  (Only  to  get  food  and  bathe.  While  she  is 
gone,  her  mate  sits  on  the  nest.)  Did  you  ever  see 


148  Special  Method  in  Science. 

a  robin  bathing?  Did  it  use  ashes  or  dust  as  the 
hen  does?  (A  robin  bathes  every  day  in  water.) 
How  does  it  bathe?    Where?     [Watch  and  see.] 

After  the  robin  has  been  sitting"  about  eleven 
days,  what  happens?  How  do  the  young  robins 
look?  Like  little  chickens?  (Not  at  all.)  They 
are  naked  and  blind,  and  seem  to  be  nearly  all 
mouth.  When  a  little  over  a  week  old,  for  the 
first  time  they  see  their  parents,  ^ and  brothers 
aud  sisters.  They  never  know  quite  how  ugly 
they  look  at  first,  for  when  they  open  their  eyes 
their  feathers  have  begun  to  grow.)  What  be- 
comes of  the  egg-shells  after  the  birds  are  out? 
(The  papa  robin  pushes  them  out  of  the  nest  with 
his  bill,  and  he  now  cleans  out  the  nest  whenever 
it  needs  it.) 

How  do  the  baby  robins  spend  their  time? 
(Eating  and  sleeping.)  What  do  they  eat?  How 
get  their  food?  (The  papa  and  mamma  feed  them.) 
Do  they  eat  much?  (They  keep  their  parents  hunt- 
ing food  all  the  time.)  How  do  the  parents  give 
the  food  to  their  children? 

Since  these  birds  eat  so  much,  they  must  grow 
very  fast.  Does  their  home  grow,  too?  (No.  So 
the  house  is  soon  too  small  for  so  many  big  birds.) 
What  will  be  done  about  it?  (The  birdies  will 
have  to  leave.  When  about  three  weeks  old  they 
bid  good-by  to  their  home.)  How  large  are  they 
now?  How  are  they  dressed?  (Very  much  as  their 
parents  are  dressed,  only  their  vests  are  spotted 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  149 

instead  of  plain  orang-e.)  How  will  they  get  out 
into  the  world?  (They  must  learn  to  fly.)  Did 
you  ever  watch  any  young  robins  learning  to  fly? 
Tell  what  they  did.  How  did  the  parents  act? 
Watch  for  young  robins  learning  to  fly  this  sum- 
mer and  tell  what  they  do.  Do  they  learn  to  fly 
well?  Can  robins  fly  any  better  than  hens?  Why? 
Their  bodies  are  light,  and  their  wings  spread  out 
wide. 

After  the  young  robins  have  left  the  nest  do 
they  go  back  at  night?  (They  never  go  back. 
But  they  are  not  old  enough  to  feed  themselves. 
The  papa  bird  takes  all  the  care  of  them  after 
they  leave  the  nest.  It  is  hard  work  for  him  to 
get  enough  food  for  three  or  four  such  big  fellows, 
but  little  by  little  they  learn  to  hunt  for  them- 
selves.) 

What  is  the  mamma  bird  doing  while  the  papa 
bird  cares  for  the  young?  (If  this  was  her  first 
brood  of  the  summer,  she  goes  to  work  immedi- 
ately to  build  another  nest  and  lay  some  more 
eggs.  She  usually  builds  this  nest  near  the  first 
one.  Sometimes  a  mamma  robin  makes  three 
nests  in  one  summer  and  raises  three  families. 
She  has  little  time  for  rest,  aside  from  that  spent 
on  her  nest.) 

What  enemies  have  the  little  birds?  (The  cat 
is  one  of  its  worst  enemies.)  How  can  kitty  catch 
the  birds?  What  other  enemies?  (Squirrels  and 
owls  carry  off  the  helpless  little  birds.) 


150  Special  Method  in  Science. 

We  have  found  out  that  the  robins  are  great 
eaters.  In  the  winter  time  do  we  see  bugs,  cater- 
pillars, and  fruit?  What  do  the  poor  robins  do 
for  a  living  then?  (They  cannot  stay  here,  so 
they  go  South  where  it  is  warm,  so  that  there  is 
plenty  of  food.)  The  mamma  bird  and  the  chil- 
dren g"o  South  several  days  before  the  papa  birds 
go.  It  may  be  that  the  young  go  so  slowly  that 
the  papa  birds,  although  starting  several  days 
later,  g"et  there  as  soon.  Let  us  ask  some  one 
from  the  South  if  they  all  arrive  at  the  same  time. 
When  do  the  robins  come  back  to  us?  (As  soon 
as  the  weather  begins  to  get  warm  in  the  spring.) 
Why  then?  Do  they  all  come  together?  (No,  the 
males  come  several  days  before  the  females.) 
Where  do  the  robins  stay  before  they  begin  to 
build  their  nests?  (In  thick  trees  or  bushes,  where 
they  can  keep  warm.)  Have  you  ever  seen  robins 
here  when  there  was  snow  on  the  ground?  Do 
you  suppose  they  were  hungry?  What  could  you 
have  done  to  help  them?  Picture  the  robins — the 
male,  female,  and  baby. 

For  study  of  robins,  see  Dr.  Lockwood's  "Animal  Me- 
moir," Part  II,  and  books  by  John  Burroug-hs,  Leander 
Keyser,  Bradford  Torrey,  and  Olive  Thorne  Miller. 

THE  RED-HEADED  WOODPECKER. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  spring  term  the  chil- 
dren are  asked  to  watch  for  red-headed  woodpeck- 
ers and  report  the  first  one  seen,  as  last  term  they 
notified  us  of  the  first  appearance  of  the  robin.  To 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  151 

make  sure  that  the  children  know  what  bird  they 
are  to  look  for,  the  teacher  asks:  "How  many  know 
this  bird?"  "Tell  how  it  looks."  (It  wears  a  red 
cap,  a  bluish  black  coat,  with  white  skirts  when 
at  rest,  and  a  white  vest.)  The  female  dresses 
like  the  male  only  her  colors  are  not  so  bright, 
and  she  is  a  smaller  bird.  Show  a  stuffed  speci- 
men or  colored  picture  if  possible. 

What  bird  have  we  been  talking  about?  (The 
robin-redbreast.)  And  what  other  bird  have  we 
been  looking  for?  (The  red-headed  woodpecker.) 
How  many  have  seen  one?  What  was  it  doing? 
(Knocking  on  tiee  trunks, running  up  trees,  or  fly- 
ing.) Why  were  the  woodpeckers  knocking  on  the 
trees?  (They  were  making  holes  through  the 
bark.)  Why?  (To  get  at  the  grubs  or  insects 
under  the  bark.)  How  can  a  woodpecker  make 
this  hole?  (A  stuffed  specimen  would  be  of  use 
in  studying  the  bill  as  adapted  to  its  work;  if  this 
can  not  be  had  a  good  picture  could  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage for  the  children  can  not  get  close  enough 
to  the  bird  to  examine  its  bill.  There  is  a  good 
picture  in  Hooker's  Child's  Book  of  Nature,  part  H, 
and  in  "Birds"  there  is  an  excellent  colored  pic- 
ture.) (Its  bill  is  long,  straight,  pointed.)  Does 
he  make  much  noise  knocking?  How  does  it  sound? 
When  he  has  the  hole  made  how  does  he  get  the 
grub?  (He  thrusts  out  his  long,  narrow,  pointed 
tongue.  The  end  of  his  tongue  is  hard  and  has  lit- 
tle teeth  pointing  backward  in  this  way — showing 


152  Special  Method  in  Science. 

by  diagram  on  the  board.  He  can  run  this  tongue 
out  far  beyond  the  end  of  his  bill  and  do  it  very 
quickly.  When  a  grub  is  once  pierced  by  this 
hook  it  cannot  get  away  for  the  barbs  hold  it  on. 
But  sometimes  an  insect  is  too  small  to  be  pierced 
in  this  way;  such  are  caught  by  a  sort  of  glue  that 
is  on  the  end  of  the  tongue.  They  get  stuck  fast 
in  it.)  (If  there  is  any  danger  that  the  children 
may  not  understand  the  latter  statement  a  child 
might  take  a  little  glue  on  his  finger  and  notice 
how  all  small  particles  that  he  touches  with  his 
finger  cling  to  it.) 

Can  you  tell  now  why  this  bird  is  called  a 
woodpecker? " 

Does  it  harm  the  trees  to  be  bored  into  in  this 
way?  (They  do  not  often  bore  into  a  tree  unless  they 
hear  a  grub  or  bug  under  the  bark.)  What  if  these 
grubs  were  left  in  the  tree?  (They  might  kill  it.) 
Do  trees  that  are  very  well  and  strong  have  insects 
under  the  bark?  (No.)  What  kind  of  trees,  then, 
does  a  red-headed  woodpecker  peck?  (Only  those 
that  need  the  woodpecker  to  cure  them — to  take 
away  the  things  that  injure  them.)  Did  you  ever 
see  them  peck  at  the  bark  of  dead  trees?  Do  you 
think  they  were  there  for  insects?  Strip  off  the 
bark  from  a  dead  tree  and  see  if  you  can  find  in- 
sects there. 

Upon  what  does  the  woodpecker  sit  while 
breaking  into  the  grub's  house?  (It  does  not  sit 
at  all,  it  stands  up.)    How  can  it  do  this?    (Have 


Illustrative  Lissoiis  for  Primary  Grades.  153 

stuffed  specimen  or  a  good  picture  in  the  class  to 
show  how  the  toes  hold  him.  If  neither  is  to  be 
had,  put  a  diagram  on  the  board.)  (He  has  four 
toes,  two  in  front  and  two  behind.  They  have 
strong,  sharp  curved  claws.  These  claws  catch 
into  the  wood  before  and  behind  and  hold  him 
firmly.)  Does  he  use  anything  but  his  claws?  Chil- 
dren find  out  for  themselves.  (He  has  a  long  and 
very  stiff  tail.  The  ends  of  the  feathers  are 
pointed,  and  these  are  pressed  into  the  wood  and 
prop  him  up,  just  as  this  brace — showing  one — 
holds  this  board  up.)  Do  they  seem  afraid  of  falling 
when  running  up  a  tree?  (No,  they  go  with  as 
much  ease  as  you  run  on  the  sidewalk.) 

Do  the  red-heads  get  insects  in  any  other  places 
except  under  the  bark  of  trees?  (They  find  them 
on  the  outside  of  the  bark  and  on  the  leaves  of 
trees,  on  the  ground  also.)  How  do  you  know? 
Where  else  do  you  find  insects?  (In  the  air.)  Do 
the  red-heads  ever,  catch  them  while  in  the  air? 
Watch  and  see.  They  catch  beetles  and  wasps 
while  on  the  wing. 

Do  they  eat  anything  except  grubs  and  insects? 
What?  (Cherries,  berries,  apples,  and  pears.)  How 
do  they  eat  them?  Children  observe.  Leander 
Keyser  says  that  they  sometimes  dig  out  holes  in 
the  top  of  posts,  in  dead  tree  trunks,  or  in  stumps, 
and  hide  fruit.  He  saw  a  red-head  press  a  berry 
into  one  of  these  holes,  then  suck  out  its  juice. 


154  Special  Method  in  ISciencc. 

Sometimes  these  birds  catch  a  cherry  or  a  berry 
on  the  fly,  but  usually  they  alight  near  enoug-h  to 
it  to  reach  it  with  their  bills.  Do  they  swallow  a 
berry  whole?     Children  find  out. 

Do  you  know  of  anything-  else  that  they  feed 
upon?  (Once  in  awhile  but  not  often,  you  will 
find  a  red-head  boring  holes  into  good  trees  for 
the  sap.)  Have  you  noticed  these  holes?  How 
did  they  look?  (They  often  extend  around  the  tree 
in  a  circle.)  It  is  another  wookpecker  that  does 
most  of  the  sucking.  They  suck  the  -sap  out  of 
these  little  wells.  After  a  while  the  wells  fill  up 
again,  when  the  woodpeckers  suck  them  dry  as 
before.  Do  you  know  of  any  little  insects  that 
like  sweets?  Where  might  they  go  for  them?  (To 
these  wells.)  What  might  happen  to  them  here? 
The  red-heads  might  make  a  dinner  off  of  them. 
(Dr.  Lockwood  thinks  this  is  one  of  the  purposes 
of  these  wells.) 

Do  you  think  he  is  a  pretty  good  bird  to  have 
around?  Why?  (Review.) 

What  is  the  only  harm  we  have  found  them 
doing  thus  far?  Ought  we  to  welcome  them  when 
they  come  back  in  the  spring?  Why?  Do  they 
come  at  the  same  time  as  the  robin?  When  did 
we  hear  the  first  robin?  When  the  first  red- 
headed woodpecker?  Could  you  tell  that  he  was 
here  without  seeing  him?  (The  male  comes  more 
than  a  week  before  the  female.)  (Yes,  by  his 
drumming.)    How  did  it  sound?    "Tap!  tap!  tap!" 


Illustnitive  Lessons  for  Primanj  Grades.  155 

very  fast,  then  "tap!  tap!"  very  loud,  with  a 
pause  between  the  two  taps.  What  did  he  use 
for  his  drum?  (A  dry  limb  or  sometimes  a  shingle 
on  the  house.)  What  did  he  use  to  beat  the  drum 
with?  (His  bill.)  Does  he  never  sing?  (No,  and 
he  is  too  happy  to  keep  still,  so  he  beats  a  drum 
to  make  music.)  Does  he  have  but  one  drum? 
(Each  woodpecker  has  a  favorite  place  where  he 
goes  to  drum.  One  spring  one  wakened  me  very 
early  every  morning"  by  drumming  on  a  shingle  in 
the  roof  just  above  my  head.  They  drum  in  other 
places,  too,  as  they  fly  around  getting  their  food.) 
Find  out  whether  they  do  most  of  their  drumming 
in  the  morning  or  in  the  afternoon.  How  early 
do  they  begin?  When  you  hear  one,  run  and  ask 
your  mamma  w^hat  time  it  is.  Do  they  drum  very 
long  at  a  time?  Do  they  drum  constantly,  or  stop 
to  rest  a  little  once  in  a  while?  What  do  they 
do  when  resting?  The  drumming  seems  to  be  a 
call  to  the  mate.  See  if  the  children  arrive  at 
this  conclusion  by  noticing  that  the  bird  acts  as 
if  he  were  listening,  and  later  is  sometimes  joined 
by  the  female,  Does  he  drum  at  all  when  his 
mate  is  with  him?  (Yes,  and  she  seems  to  think 
him  a  fine  musician.)  Is  this  the  only  sound  you 
hear  a  woodpecker  make?  (He  makes  a  shrill, 
lively  sound,  in  which  there  is  no  music.)  You 
may  tell  all  you  know  about  the  music  of  a  red- 
headed woodpecker.     (Review.) 


156  Special  Method  in  Science. 

Where  do  they  sleep  at  the  end  of  their  long, 
busy  day?  Leave  the  children  to  find  this  out  for 
themselves  if  they  can.  Let  them  watch  near  a 
nest  if  there  be  one  near  their  home.  (They  some- 
times, early  in  the  season,  sleep  in  holes  in  trees, 
but  Leander  Keyser  says  that  they  usually  sleep 
on  an  uprig-ht  or  oblique  perch,  cling-ing-  with 
their  stout  claws,  with  their  heads  pillowed  in  the 
feathers  on  their  backs.) 

After  he  has  called  his  mate  they  two  g"o  to 
work  building-  a  nest.  Where?  (In  the  trunk  of 
a  dead  tree  that  is  not  too  soft,  or  in  a  limb,  a 
fence  post,  or  a  teleg-raph  pole.  When  made  in  a 
limb  it  is  usually  on  the  under  side.)  How  do  they 
make  it?  They  cut  out  a  round,  smooth,  straig*ht 
hole  rig-ht  in  front  of  them, with  their  bills.  They 
make  it  large  enough  around  so  that  the  bird  can 
go  in.  When  the  woodpecker  has  gone  in  five 
inches  or  so — show  distance  by  a  mark  on  the 
board — he  begins  to  work  downward,  making  the 
hole  larger  and  larger  as  he  goes  down  ten  or 
twenty  inches — show  by  line.  If  not  possible  for 
the  children  to  see  a  nest,  the  teacher  should  give 
them  a  clear  idea  of  it  by  a  diagram  on  the  board. 
You  have  learned  that  the  mamma  robin  builds 
the  nest.  Which  is  the  harder  to  make,  the 
robin's  nest  or  the  red-headed  woodpecker's.  (The 
red-head's.)  Will  the  mamma  have  help,  do  you 
think?  (Yes,  the  papa  bird  does  half  of  the  work.) 
Can  they  work  together?  Why  not?  (The  mamma 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  157 

bird  works  just  about  as  long-  as  the  time  you 
spend  in  this  class — twenty  minutes — then  she 
flies  to  an  upper  limb  and  calls  her  mate  in  her 
shrill  voice.  When  he  comes  she  seems  to  tell 
him  how  much  she  has  done,  and  they  talk  over 
their  plans  together.  Then  the  papa  bird  flies  to 
the  nest  and  works  about  as  long-  as  the  mamma 
worked,  while  she  flies  away  for  food  and  rest. 
Then  the  papa  bird  calls  the  mamma  bird  and 
tells  her  about  his  work,  etc.)  How  do  they  get 
the  chips  out  of  the  nest?  (Carry  them  out  with 
their  bills.)  How  is  the  nest  lined?  (It  is  not 
lined.)  The  fine  wood  or  sawdust  falls  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  nest,  and  this  forms  a  soft  bed  for  the 
eg-gs.)  Is  this  a  good  kind  of  nest  for  a  bird  to 
have?  Why  do  you  think  so?  (It  is  protected  from 
the  storms,  and  from  the  birds  and  animals  that 
trouble  the  robin's  nest.)  What  ones?  But  there 
is  one  animal  that  troubled  the  robin's  nest  which 
can  easily  get  into  this  nest.  What  is  that?  (The 
blacksnake.)  Quite  often  it  steals  the  wood- 
pecker's eggs  or  birdies 

Do  the  birds  go  to  all  this  work  to  make  a  nest 
every  year,  or  do  they  use  the  same  nest  year 
after  year?  They  always  make  a  new  nest  and 
they  do  not  use  a  hole  which  they  find  already  in 
a. tree.  Can  you  see  the  egg-s  in  the  nest,  or  the 
tiny  woodpeckers?  Why  not?  How  many  eggs? 
(Six.)  How  do  they  look?  (They  are  more  nearly 
round  than  are  the  robin's  eg-gs  and  are  larger 


158  Special  Method  in  Science. 

than  her's.  They  are  pure  white  and  very  smooth. 
Can  you  tell  when  there  are  little  woodpeckers 
in  the  nest  if  you  cannot  see  them?  (If  you 
are  near  the  tree  you  can  hear  the  babies  cry. 
They  are  big-  eaters  and  nearly  all  the  time  they 
are  teasing  for  food.)  Who  feeds  them?  (The 
mamma  and  papa.)  What  do  they  feed  them? 
(Bug's,  moths,  grasshoppers,  etc.)  When  they  are 
big  enough  to  fly  about  how  can  you  tell  them 
from  their  parents?  (The  first  summer  their  heads 
are  not  red,  but  instead  a  very  dark  gray,  and 
their  wings  are  spotted  black  and  white.  The 
white  on  their  breasts  is  not  pure  white,  but  dirty 
looking.) 

Do  these  brothers  and  sisters  have  good  times 
playing?  (Yes,  and  the  father  and  mother  play, 
too.)  Children  watch  them  and  tell  what  games 
they  play.  And,  if  you  have  a  chance,  watch  one 
during  a  shower  and  see  what  it  does.  The 
teacher  should  call  for  their  observations  and  re- 
late her  own,  throughout  the  summer  term,  and 
again  in  the  fall. 

The  children  should  be  taught  to  be  very  wary 
in  watching  birds,  try  to  keep  out  of  their  sight 
as  much  as  possible,  and  keep  quiet. 

Picture  the  red-headed  woodpecker. 

CABBAQE  BUTTERFLY. 

Have  you  seen  butterflies  in  a  "cabbage 
patch?"  Of  what  color?  What  were  they  doing 
there?    Watch  them  closely  and  see  if  you  can 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primai-y  Grades.  159 

find  out.  (They  were  laying  eggs.)  Where  did 
they  lay  the  eggs?  What  was  their  color?  Was 
the  color  any  protection?  How  many  were  there 
together? 

The  teacher  ijiight  well  bring  a  head  of  cab- 
bage to  the  class  on  which  are  some  of  these 
eggs.  Keep  in  a  shady,  cool  place  where  the 
leaves  will  not  wilt,  and  allow  the  children  to 
look  at  these  eggs  every  day. 

Encourage  them  also  to  watch  those  on  one 
head  in  their  gardens  at  home.  In  about  ten 
days  from  the  time  the  eggs  were  laid  they  will 
hatch  out  into  tiny  green  caterpillars.  Is  it  well 
for  them  that  their  color  is  green?  Why?  What 
do  they  do  as  soon  as  they  come  from  the  egg? 
(Go  to  eating  the  leaves.)  Can  you  see  why  the 
mother  laid  the  eggs  just  where  she  did? 

A  few  of  these  caterpillars  may  be  put  in  a 
jelly  glass  and  supplied  with  fresh  leaves  every 
day.  The  top  might  be  covered  with  paper  in 
which  there  are  holes  for  the  air  to  pass  through, 
but  not  large  enough  to  allow  the  caterpillar  to 
get  out.  The  children  will  feed  them  and  watch 
their  growth.  They  grow  to  their  full  length, 
one  and  one-half  inches  or  less,  in  about  three 
weeks. 

What  happens  when  they  are  fully  grown? 
(They  hang  themselves  up.)  How?  Where  does 
the  silk  come  from?  (From  the  mouth.)  In  the 
body  of  the  caterpillar  are  two  long-  bags  which 


160  Special  Method  in  Science. 

hold  a  sticky  fluid.  This  fluid  flows  through  a 
tube  which  ends  in  the  middle  of  the  lower  lip. 
The  fluid  hardens  as  soon  as  it  comes  to  the  air. 

Does  it  hang-  with  its  head  up,  or  is  it  down? 
Then  w^hat  happens?  It  throws  pff  its  caterpillar 
skin.     Make  a  picture  of  it  as  it  hangs  now. 

The  children  note  the  day  when  it  goes  into 
its  chrysalid  state  and  watch  for  it  to  come  out. 
They  will  need  to  watch  about  eleven  days,  and 
it  will  be  a  joyful  moment  for  them  if  they  are  so 
fortunate  as  to  see  it  leave  its  home.  How  does 
it  go  to  work  to  get  out?  It  begins  to  move  about, 
a  slit  comes  on  its  back,  and  it  puts  its  head  out, 
then  the  rest  of  its  body  comes  out,  and  the  little 
green  house  is  left  empty. 

The  children  now  have  the  whole  life  of  the 
cabbage  butterfly  learned  from  their  own  obser- 
vation, and  they  will  never  forget  it.  It  helps 
them  to  interpret  the  life  of  all  caterpillars. 

They  will  gather,  feed,  and  watch  other  cater- 
pillars. Not  all  of  them  will  change  into  butter- 
flies. Some  will  become  moths,  and  by  comparison 
they  will  find  these  differences. 

(a)  A  butterfly  flies  in  the  daytime,  a  moth  by 
night. 

(&)  A  butterfly  holds  its  wings  erect  when  at 
rest.  The  wings  of  a  moth  lie  flat  or  slant  like 
the  roof  of  a  house. 

(c)  A  butterfly  has  knobbed  feelers.  A  moth's 
feelers  are  not  knobbed. 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  G^'ades.  161 

CATERPILLARS. 

The  children  will  enjoy  studying"  caterpillars 
at  home,  if  they  are  initiated  at  school.  The  best 
time  to  study  many  of  them  is  during-  the  summer 
vacation. 

When  a  child  finds  a  caterpillar  he  might  pick 
the  plant  or  twig  on  which  it  rests  and  put  both 
into  a  box.  After  reaching  home  or  school,  it  is 
well  to  transfer  the  caterpillar  to  a  glass  cup  or 
jar  where  its  movements  may  be  watched.  This 
may  be  covered  with  netting  or  perforated  paper. 
Once  or  twice  a  day  fresh  leaves  of  the  kind  on 
which  it  was  feeding"  when  found,  should  be  fur- 
nished it,  and  the  glass  cleaned.  The  little  cap- 
tive seems  quite  happy  so  long  as  it  has  plenty  of 
fresh  food  and  a  g"ood  appetite. 

Often  we  find  caterpillars  on  the  walks  or  in 
the  road;  these  must  be  tested  with  a  variety  of 
food  until  leaves  are  found  which  they  will  eat. 
The  hairy  caterpillars  which  I  found  this  summer 
contented  themselves  with  the  leaves  of  the 
smartweed  or  a  closely  allied  plant.  The  plantain 
was,  also,  accepted  by  several.  But  whenever 
possible  to  know  its  choice,  the  caterpillar  has 
been  fed  from  its  own  particular  kind  of  plant. 

Some  of  the  caterpillars  may  begin  spinning 
or  otherwise  changing",  the  day  on  which  they  are 
captured.  When  you  find  one  spinning  at  school, 
pass  the  glass  to  the  children  for  their  inspec- 
tion, taking  care  not  to  disturb  the  little  worker. 


162  Special  Method  in  Science. 

Some  lesson  may  suffer  for  this  interruption,  but 
the  children  have  a  bit  of  experience  all  their 
own,  which  they  would  not  care  to  part  with,  and 
school  is  made  pleasanter  for  this  little  break  in 
the  routine.  Long"  after  most  of  the  other  lessons 
are  forgotten,  the  children  will  look  back  upon 
these  happy  moments  of  discovery  in  the  school 
room  with  real  pleasure. 

It  has  been  my  good  fortune  twice  this  fall  to 
see  a  hairy  caterpillar  divesting  itself  of  its  hairs 
that  it  might  weave  them  into  its  coverlet.  It 
seemed  to  require  no  effort.  Did  it  pull  them  out 
or  bite  them  off?  I  am  not  sure.  It  did  not  ap- 
pear to  carry  them  in  its  mouth.  How,  then,  did 
it  carry  them?  This  question  must  be  solved  by 
further  observation. 

How  deftly  it  wove  those  hairs  into  its  cocoon, 
spreading-  them  very  evenly  over  its  surface.  How 
could  that  clumsy-looking  body,  with  the  still 
clumsier  fleshy  feet,  move  over  that  web  with 
never  a  trip,  or  a  break  of  the  dainty  silk?  In 
what  a  business-like  way  the  weaving  is  done,  the 
thread  coming  from  its  mouth  as  needed,  and 
placed  in  position  by  movements  of  its  head  and 
front  legs.  When  the  top  of  the  cocoon  is  to  be 
thickened,  it,  lying  within,  turns  upon  its  back 
and  weaves  away  as  if  this  were  its  natural  posi- 
tion; It  really  never  seems  awkward  when  making 
its  house,  yet  this  is  the  first  one  it  ever  built,  and  it 
will  never  have  an  opportunity  to  build  another. 


llhcstrative  Lessons  for  Pnmary  Grades.  163 

Several  of  the  caterpillars  use  leaves  as  a  par- 
tial or  a  complete  outside  cover.  These  are  woven 
firmly  together  and  lined  with  silk. 

Once,  in  a  very  close  little  home,  in  which  there 
seemed  not  room  enough  to  stir,  the  caterpillar 
turned  completely  around,  end  for  end.  It  moved 
with  dignity  and  grace.  I  cannot  tell  exactly 
how,  for  I  did  not  understand  its  intentions  at 
first. 

One  of  the  caterpillars  which  I  watched  snipped 
off  small  portions  of  the  leaves  in  the  glass  and 
wove  these  into  its  outer  cover.  They  made  the 
cocoon  look  very  pretty,  scattered  regularly  over 
its  surface.  Why  did  it  do  this?  Has  a  caterpil 
lar  an  eye  for  beauty? 

I  have  named  but  few  of  the  many  queer  things 
which  we  have  noticed  while  the  hairy  caterpillars 
made  ready  for  their  sleep. 

The  glasses  which  held  the  cocoons  were  placed 
in  a  dry  cellar  late  in  the  fall,  where  they  were 
kept  until  early  spring,  when  they  were  again 
watched  by  the  children  for  the  house-breaking. 

In  the  fall  work  on  the  caterpillars  the  chil- 
dred  note  the  changes  and  give  orally  the  history 
of  each  caterpillar  so  far  as  they  have  observed 
it.  They  may  also  write  portions  of  this  history. 
They  also  make  drawings  of  the  caterpillar  and 
its  chrysalis,  or  the  cocoon.  The  chrysalis  and 
caterpillar  are  moulded  in  clay  and  placed  bide  by 
side  on  a  plaque. 


164  Special  Method  in  Science. 

The  older  children  can  do  more.  They  can  keep 
a  book,  which  they  might  name  "Life  Histories  of 
Caterpillars."  They  number  the  glass  in  which 
each  little  prisoner  is  confined,  and  write  on  the 
first  pag-e  a  few  facts  about  Caterpillar  No.  1,  viz. : 

(a)  Hairy  or  smooth. 

(&)  Length,  color,  and  any  striking  character- 
istic in  appearance;  number  and  position  of  legs. 

(c)  When  and  where  found,  and  food  on  which 
it  is  fed. 

id)  Any  peculiarities  in  its  actions. 

The  next  page  is  devoted  to  The  cocoon  or  chrys- 
alis of  No.  1. 

(a)  Length  and  shape  of  the  cocoon  and  man- 
ner in  w^hich  it  was  made;  also  time  of  making. 

Or  description  of  the  chrysalis  with  account 
of  the  gradual  change  and  date  of  its  consumma. 
tion. 

The  third  page  is  devoted  to  The  Moth,  {or  But- 
terfly) of  No.  1. 

(a)  When  did  it  come  out?  Description  of  the 
method  of  releasing  itself. 

(&)  Description  of  the  moth  (or  butterfly). 

(c)  From  what  flowers  does  it  get  its  nectar? 
Color  of  these  flowers? 

{d)  Difference  in  coloring  of  male  and  female. 

On  the  fourth  page  is  given  a  record  of  The  eggs 
and  growth  of  No.  1. 

(a)  Where  were  the  eggs  laid?  How  many  in 
a  place?    Color?    Form?    Size? 


4       Illustrative  Lessons  for  Pnmary  Grades.  165 

(&)  How  long-  did  it  take  the  eggs  to  hatch? 

(c)  How  long  did  it  take  the  caterpillars  to  ma- 
ture? How  many  moultings?  What  became  of 
the  cast-off  skin? 

It  may  be  some  time  before  page  four  is  filled 
out,  but  watchfulness  will  reward  the  patient 
seeker. 

Quite  likely  more  than  one  page  may  be  needed 
for  some  of  the  descriptions. 

Many  cocoons  are  found'  in  the  fall.  What 
caterpillar  made  them  is  a  mystery,  so  our  first 
entry  in  the  book  will  be  on  page  two,  perhaps — 
the  record  of  the  cocoon  or  chrysalis. 

This  book  may  be  used  season  after  season, 
until  every  caterpillar  in  one's  locality  is  known 
throug-h  its  whole  series  of  changes. 

It  is  a  wonder  that  more  of  our  farmer  boys  and 
g"irls  do  not  make  a  study  of  caterpillars  and  learn 
to  disting-uish  the  harmful  from  the  harmless. 
Throug"h  knowledg-e  of  the  habits  of  those  injuri- 
ous to  trees,  vegetables,  etc.,  the  eggs  of  many 
might  be  found  and  destroyed. 

THE  COnnON  BLUE  VIOLET. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Spring  term  or  at  the 
close  of  the  Winter  term  the  children  are  asked 
to  look  for  violets  and  see  who  will  be  first  to  find 
one. 

As  soon  as  they  become  plentiful  the  children 
are  asked  to  notice  carefully  what  kind  of  a  home 


166  Special  Method  in  Science. 

they  live  in.  Is  it  moist  ground  or  dry?  Is  it  in 
the  shade  or  in  the  sun?     In  the  woods  or  out? 

*'Did  any  of  you  know  exactly  where  to  g"o  to 
look  for  violets  this  year?  How  did  you  know?" 
(They  grew  there  last  year.)  "Did  they  grow  all 
winter?  When  the  snow  was  off  the  ground  could 
you  see  them?  (No,  the  frost  killed  the  leaves  in 
the  fall.)  Did  it  kill  all  of  the  plant?  (No,  the 
root  lived  through  the  winter.)  Was  it  protected 
at  all  from  the  cold?  (It  was  covered  with  soil; 
above  that  were  dead  leaves,  and  over  all,  the 
snow.)  Is  snow  warm?  How  could  it  keep  the 
violet  warm?  (It  shut  out  the  cold  air  and  kept 
in  the  warmth.)  Do  you  remember  an  animal 
about  which  we  have  studied,  that  is  sometimes 
kept  warm  by  a  covering  of  snow?     (The  rabbit.) 

Did  you  look  for  violets  at  all  before  they 
came,  this  year?  Were  there  any  promises  of  vio- 
lets? (The  leaves.)  Can  you  think  of  any  reason 
why  the  leaves  should  come  first?  (They  make  a 
pretty  home  for  the  flower.  They  stand  around 
it  like  little  soldiers,  ready  to  protect  it.)  But 
that  is  not  all.  The  leaves  are  the  plants'  kitch- 
ens, in  which  all  the  food  is  prepared  for  the 
flowers  and  the  whole  plant,  as  well.  The  little 
flowers  must  have  something  to  eat  or  they  could 
not  grow,  so  the  leaves  come  first  and  the  leaf 
fairies  get  the  food  ready  for  the  flowers.  Can 
you  see  the  fairies  at  work  in  the  leaves?  (No, 
they  work  very  quietly  and  orderly,  yet  they 


lilustrative  Lessons  for  Frimai^  Grades.  167 

must  be  very  busy  to  get  food  enough  ready  for 
all  the  roots  and  leaves  and  flowers.) 

Where  does  the  food  which  is  prepared  in  the 
leaves  come  from?  (The  roots  get  it  from  the 
ground.)  Have  you  ever  noticed  the  roots  of  the 
violet?  I  have  a  plant  here  with  its  roots  washed 
so  that  you  can  see  them  plainly.  Which  are  the 
working  roots?  (The  very  small  ones.)  What 
must  these  roots  have  through  which  to  take  in 
their  food?  (Mouths.)  Where  are  its  mouths? 
(All  over  its  tiny  roots.)  Can  you  see  them?  What 
kind  of  food  can  it  take  through  such  little 
mouths?  (Water.)  If  you  put  a  little  salt  or  soda 
into  w^ater  what  becomes  of  it?  (It  dissolves  so  we 
cannot  see  it.)  Could  the  plant  take  anything  but 
water  through  its  tiny  root  mouths?  (It  could  take 
other  things  if  they  were  dissolved  in  water.)  It 
does  this  and  we  do  not  know  all  of  the  things 
that  it  takes  in  this  way. 

How  does  this  food  reach  the  leaves?  It  first 
passes  along  to  "the  large  root,"  then  up  the  stem 
to  the  stalks  of  the  leaves,  on,  through  the  large 
veins  in  the  leaves,  into  the  smaller  ones,  and  so  on 
to  all  parts  of  the  leaf  where  it  is  prepared  as  food 
and  then  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  plant  to  feed  it. 

What  furnishes  the  heat  for  cooking?  (The 
sun.)  Yes,  the  leaf  fairies  cannot  get  the  food 
ready  unless  the  sun  helps,  and  so  when  the  sun 
goes  down  the  food  stops  cooking  and  the  little 
fairy  cooks  rest. 


168  Special  Method  in  Science. 

You  have  noticed  that  when  your  mother  is 
cooking-,  steam  arises  from  the  kettles  or  sauce- 
pans. Is  the  same  thing-  true  here?  You  may 
place  several  fresh  violet  leaves  under  this  g-lass, 
look  at  them  occasionally  and  tell  us  tomorrow 
what  you  saw.  On  the  inside  of  the  glass  will  be 
moisture.  From  what  did  this  come?  Can  you 
see  the  windows  through  which  it  came?  No,  they 
are  too  small  to  be  seen. 

Through  these  tiny  windows  air  goes  into  the 
leaf  and  mixes  with  the  food  from  the  roots  before 
it  is  fit  for  the  plant  to  eat. 

When  the  food  is  all  ready  what  becomes  of  it? 
(Some  of  it  goes  to  all  parts  of  the  leaf,  some  to 
the  roots  and  some  to  the  pretty  blue  blossoms.) 

You  said  that  there  were  no  leaves  in  the  win- 
ter. When  did  these  leaves  come?  How  could 
they  grow  when  there  were  no  leaves  in  which  to 
prepare  the  food  for  them?  (Last  autumn,  before 
Jack  Frost  killed  the  working  leaves,  this  "large 
root,"  as  you  call  it,  packed  up  enough  prepared 
food  to  feed  the  roots  and  leaves  this  spring,  un- 
til they  got  well  started  at  their  work  and  could 
feed  themselves. 

Let  us  look  at  this  trunk  in  which  the  food  was 
packed  last  autumn.  Why  do  you  call  it  a  root? 
(It  looks  like  one.  It  grows  under  ground.)  What 
do  we  find  growing  from  it  here?  (Leaves.)  (The 
teacher  should  have  a  number  of  different  plants 
in  the  class.)     From  what  do  the  leaves  on  this 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  16^ 

plant  grow?  (A  stem.)  On  this?  (A  stem,)  etc. 
What  do  we  call  this  part  from  which  the  leaves 
and  flowers  grow?  (A  stem.)  What  shall  we  call 
this,  then,  from  which  the  violet's  leaves  and 
flowers  grow?  (pointing-  to  the  root-stock).  (A 
stem.)  Since  it  grows  under  the  ground  what 
name  shall  we  give  it?     (An  underground  stem.) 

How  did  the  little  leaves  look  when  they 
started  up  from  this  stem  to  get  a  peep  into  the 
great  world,  where  they  were  to  make  ready  a 
home  for  the  flowers?  Here  are  some  on  this 
plant  which  I  took  up.  (The  stalk  sticks  its  back 
up  through  the  ground  first  as  if  to  make  way  for 
the  little  leaf  blade.  Then  it  comes  through  with 
the  blade  bent  over  so  as  to  lie  close  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  stalk.)  Look  closely  at  the  little 
leaves.  (They  are  rolled  tightly  from  both  edges 
toward  the  mid-rib  so  as  to  get  through  the 
ground  without  being  torn  or  broken.)  And  does 
it  unroll  suddenly?  Notice  the  bases  of  the  half- 
grown  leaves. 

What  shape  is  the  leaf?  Draw  it  on  the  board. 
Does  the  shape  of  the  leaf  help  it  any  after  it  is 
grown?  [Sprinkle  some  water  on  a  leaf  of  a 
growing  plant.  It  is  well  to  have  some  growing 
in  boxes  in  the  house.]  What  do  you  see?  (The 
water  gathers  in  the  center  of  the  leaf  and  runs 
down  the  little  trough  in  its  stalk.)  Is  that  well  or 
not?  (It  carries  the  water  directly  to  the  root 
where  it  is  needed.)    What  does  the  water  do? 


170  Special  Method  in  Science. 

(Dissolves  solid  food  which  it  finds  in  the  earth, 
then  is  taken  in  by  the  little  roots,  g"oes  to  the 
leaf,  is  mixed  with  air  and  moisture  coming 
through  the  windows,  etc.) 

And  while  the  roots  are  working  away  and  the 
leaves  are  so  busy,  what  is  the  little  flower  doing? 
(Growing.)  How  does  it  look  when  you  first  see 
it  above  ground?  Picture  on  the  board.  What 
changes  as  it  grows  older?  (The  stem  lengthens, 
lifting  the  bud  higher  and  higher  into  the  air  and 
sunlight.  The  bud  grows  fuller  and  longer.  At 
last  the  green  blanket  that  covers  little  Violet  is 
pushed  aside,  and  we  see  her  blue  dress.  (Notice 
how  her  dress  was  folded  while  she  was  wrapped 
in  the  blanket.)  Did  it  get  wrinkled?  Do  you 
think  you  could  fold  a  dress  and  pack  it  so  tightly 
and  have  it  come  out  without  a  wrinkle? 

What  becomes  of  the  green  blanket?  Can  you 
see  it  on  your  flowers?  (It  still  protects  Violet. 
Her  dress  is  very  delicate.) 

Do  all  violets  wear  dresses  of  the  same  tint  of 
blue?  Some  are  dark  and  some  are  light.  Do 
they  ever  wear  any  other  color?  (Some  violets  are 
white,  some  are  yellow,  and  some  are  purple.)  Is 
the  dress  in  one  piece?  What  are  the  pieces 
called?  (Petals.)  Are  they  all  of  the  same  size 
and  shape?  (The  lowest  petal  is  a  little  larger 
than  the  others,  and  it  has  a  little  pocket  behind.) 
Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  anything  in  this  pocket. 
[This  can  better  be  shown  with  a  large  pansy.] 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  171 

We  will  cut  the  pocket  off.  Now  pinch  it.  Taste. 
What  is  it?  (Honey.)  We  will  call  it  nectar. 
Can  you  think  of  any  reason  why  the  nectar 
should  be  there?  Can  you  think  of  anything"  that 
would  like  it?  (Bees  and  other  insects.)  Have 
you  ever  seen  any  insects  about  the  violets? 
Watch  closely  and  tell  all  that  the  bees  or  other 
insects  do. 

Later  the  children  will  very  likely  have  dis- 
covered that  the  bee  alights  on  the  lower  petal, 
then  thrusts  in  his  "long  mouth" — proboscis — and 
drinks  in  the  nectar.  After  that  what  does  he  do? 
You  have  not  noticed  closely.  I  wish  you  to  see 
whether  it  goes  to  another  violet  or  to  some  other 
flower.  The  children  will  discover  that  the  bee 
that  visits  the  blue  violets,  will  pass  by  other 
flowers  and  choose  only  blue  violets  to  visit.  Do 
you  know  why  this  is?  (It  may  be  that  it  likes 
the  color  of  the  violet  best,  or  it  may  be  that  it 
likes  its  nectar  better  than  that  of  the  other 
flowers.) 

Notice  carefully  the  i)ath  which  the  proboscis 
of  the  bee  takes  in  going  to  the  nectar.  (There 
seems  to  be  a  path  on  purpose  for  it  right  through 
the  middle  of  the  lower  petal,  and  there  is  a  hedge 
along  both  sides  of  this  road.  What  is  this  hedge? 
(A  thick  beard  of  short  hairs  running  down  the 
two  petals  on  each  side  of  the  flower.)  I  will  take 
this  fine  stalk  of  grass  and  let  it  follow  the  road 
which  the  proboscis  of  the  bee  follows.     Then  I 


172  ,         Special  Method  in  Science. 

wish  you  to  look  closely  at  the  grass  and  tell  me 
what  you  see.  (There  is  pollen  on  it.)  Where 
did  it  come  from?  What  is  it  good  for?  (To  feed 
the  tiny  seeds  so  they  will  grow.)  Let  us  look 
closely  at  the  home  of  these  seeds.  Where  shall 
we  find  them?  Each  child  has  a  flower  and  finds 
the  pistil.  Where  are  the  little  seeds?  How  is 
the  pollen  to  reach  them?  (It  must  fall  on  the 
sticky  top  of  the  pistil  and  pass  down  through 
that  tube,  to  the  seeds.)  The  sticky  top  is  the 
stigma  and  the  tube  is  the  style. 

Look  closely  at  these  new  flowers  which  I  have 
given  you  and  see  if  you  can  tell  how  the  pollen 
is  to  fall  on  the  stigma.  (It  cannot  reach  it  unless 
the  bee  touches  it  with  some  pollen  as  he  comes 
from  the  flower.)  [Show  that  this  can  not  be,  for 
just  beneath  the  stigma  is  a  shelf.  When  the  bee 
comes  out  his  head  bumps  against  this  shelf  and 
the  stigma  is  pushed  up  so  that  he  can  not  touch 
it.]  Must  the  poor  little  seeds  starve,  then?  Can 
you  think  of  any  way  in  which  the  pollen  might 
reach  them?  Notice  the  bee  or  other  insect  as  it 
goes  into  the  violet  and  tell  me  as  soon  as  you 
find  out  whether  or  not  it  touches  the  stigma  in 
going  in.  They  will  find  that  it  does,  and  as  it 
goes  into  the  flower  it  leaves  some  pollen  taken 
from  some  other  violet,  on  the  stigma,  for  the  lit. 
tie  seeds. 

Will  you  each  watch  one  clump  of  violets  at  or 
n^ar  your  home,  this  spring?     See  if  there  will  be 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Pnmary  Grades.  173 

as  many,  seed  pods  as  there  are  flowers.  Have  you 
ever  noticed  these  seed  pods?  Here  are  some 
which  I  gathered  last  shmmer.  Let  us  see  who 
will  be  the  first  to  find  one  on  his  clump.  What 
must  be  done  to  all  the  seeds  before  they  will 
grow?     (Review.) 

If  you  see  a  bee  visiting  a  violet,  of  what  do 
you  feel  quite  sure?  Mark  that  violet  by  tying  a 
small  string  around  the  stalk,  using  care  that  you 
do  not  pinch  it.    What  will  you  expect  from  it? 

Look  far  down  among  the  violet  leaves  for 
something  that  grows  up  from  the  underground 
stem,  about  which  we  have  not  spoken.  Tell  me 
about  it  tomorrow. 

The  next  day  the  children  are  questioned  in 
regard  to  their  discoveries.  They  will  tell  of  queer 
little  three-sided  buds,  of  roundish,  hard  balls, 
something  that  looked  like  the  flowers  but  had 
no  petals,  etc.  The  teacher  should  have  some  of 
these  apetalous  flowers  in  the  class  room, showing 
different  degrees  of  development.  It  will  be 
easy  to  find  other  seed  pods  also. 

What  are  these?  Queer  little  flowers  with  no 
petals.  Why  do  they  not  come  up  where  we  can 
see  them?  (They  have  no  pretty  petals  to  show.) 
Have  they  nectar?  (No,  they  have  no  pocket  in 
which  to  carry  it.)  How  did  we  say  the  blue  vio- 
lets call  the  bees?  (By  their  color  and  their 
nectar.)  Will  the  bees  come  to  these  odd  flowers? 
Why  not?    But  we  see  that  some  of  these  flowers 


174  iSpecial  Method  in  Science, 

have  borne  seeds.  How  can  that  be?  [If  possi- 
ble have  the  children  see,  but  if  not,  tell  them 
that  they  have  no  need  of  the  bees,  for  the  sta- 
mens of  each  flower  shed  its  pollen  on  the  stigma 
of  its  own  flower.] 

Here  is  something*  still  stranger  about  these 
queer  flowers.  (The  teacher  has  a  plant  in  the 
class  with  soil  on  its  roots.)  Look  as  I  open  the 
soil.  (There  are  some  of  those  queer  flowers  be- 
low the  ground,  and  some  have  gone  to  seed  here 
without  ever  seeing  the  light.) 

When  the  pod  is  ripe,  what  happens?  (It 
divides  into  three  parts  and  opens.)  What  will 
become  of  the  seeds?  (From  them  will  grow  new 
plants.)  We  will  plant  some  in  this  box  and  see 
if  they  will  grow  for  us.  Mamie  may  care  for  the 
box  this  week. 

If  the  underground  roots  were  all  to  die,  might 
we  still  have  violets?    How? 

What  two  things  were  we  to  find  out  about 
the  flowers?  (1.  Whether  all  bear  seeds.  2.  If 
not,  whether  those  which  we  know  the  bees  have 
visited  bear  seeds.) 

Review  the  life  of  the  violet,  starting  this 
time  with  the  seed. 

THE  nORNlNQ-GLORY. 

Have  you  planted  any  flower  seeds  this  spring? 
What  ones?  Among  others  quite  likely  the  morn- 
ing-glory may  be  mentioned.  Have  you  any  morn- 
ing-glory seeds?  Would  you  like  to  bring  some  to 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  175 

school  to  plant  that  we  may  have  their  pretty 
leaves  and  blossoms  in  our  windows?  [If  the 
children  have  not  the  seeds  the  teacher  will  fur- 
nish them.] 

On  the  following  day  a  number  of  seeds  are 
placed  in  a  dish  where  all  can  see  them  well. 
Notice  their  colors.  (Some  are  very  dark — nearly 
black — while  some  are  a  lig"ht  yellow — nearly 
white,  perhaps.)  You  may  sort  them  out,  putting 
the  dark  ones  in  one  dish  and  the  light  ones  in 
another. 

Notice  their  shape.  What  gave  them  this 
queer  shape?  If  they  have  not  noticed  the  seed 
pod  they  will  be  told  that  we  shall  find  out  later. 
Ask  the  children  to  bring  some  pods  in  the  fall. 

The  teacher  has  in  the  class  two  wooden  starch 
boxes,  or  other  boxes,  filled  with  rich  soil.  The 
girls  plant  the  white  seeds  in  one  box  and  the  boys 
the  dark  seeds  in  another  box.     Each  is  labeled. 

What  do  you  expect  from  these  seeds?  (Morn- 
ing-glory vines.)  What  care  must  the  seeds  have? 
(They  must  be  kept  warm  and  must  have  water.) 
How  much  water? 

Appoint  one  careful  girl  to  care  for  the  box 
of  light  colored  seeds,  and  a  thoughtful  boy  to 
care  for  the  other  box. 

Will  there  be  any  difference  between  the  colors 
of  the  flowers  in  the  two  boxes?  Let  us  find  out 
when  they  blossom.  The  boxes  are  now  set  away. 
Where  shall  we  set  them? 


176  Special  Method  in  Science. 

Now  each  child  is  supplied  with  a  morning- 
glory  seed  and  a  pin.  Would  you  like  to  find 
what  is  inside  this  seed?  You  may  take  off  its 
outside  coat.  (We  can  not,  it  is  fastened  on  so 
very  tightly.)  I  will  take  the  seeds  and  soak  them 
over  night  in  warm  water  and  see  if  that  will 
loosen  their  coats.  Is  it  well  that  its  coat  can 
not  be  easily  removed?     Why? 

On  the  following  day  the  soaked  seeds  are 
taken  to  the  class.  Each  child  is  provided  with 
one  and  with  a  pin.  You  may  see  now  if  you  can 
remove  the  seed's  coat.  Be  very  careful  not  to 
injure  what  is  inside.  What  do  you  find?  (Under- 
neath the  coat  is  a  layer  which  looks  like  light- 
colored  jelly.)  And  what  is  inside  the  jelly?  (Two 
tiny  white  leaves  all  crumpled  up  and  between 
the  two  and  protected  by  them  is  a  little  white 
stem.)  Spread  out  the  leaves.  Why,  do  you 
think,  were  they  so  crumpled?  (If  they  had  been 
spread  out  as  they  are  now  they  would  have  taken 
up  much  more  room.  They  were  packed  in  as 
closely  as  possible.  Did  you  notice  any  jelly  in 
the  first  seed  you  opened?  Scratch  a  little  of  the 
coat  off  these  dry  seeds.  (It  is  not  jelly  here,  it  is 
a  hard  substance.)  What  is  this  hard  lining  of  the 
coat  which  turns  into  jelly  when  soaked?  What  do 
you  expect  these  little  stems  and  leaves  to  do?  (To 
grow.)  And  what  must  they  have  to  make  them 
grow?  (Food.)  Where  will  they  get  the  food?  (The 
roots  will  gather  it  for  them  from  the  ground.) 


Illustraiive  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  177 

Where  are  the  roots  of  this  little  plant?  (It  has 
none,  yet.)  What  will  feed  it  until  its  roots  grow? 
(This  jelly  which  is  all  around  it.)  Why  did  not  the 
little  plant  begin  to  grow  in  the  winter,  in  the 
paper  in  which  we  found  it?  (It  can  not  eat  hard 
food.  Its  food  must  be  dissolved  for  it  before  it 
can  take  it.)  Then  what  must  happen  to  the  seed 
before  the  tiny  plant  can  begin  growing?  (It 
must  be  wet.)  You  may  make  a  picture  in  the 
left  hand  corner  of  your  drawing  paper,  of  this 
little  plant  as  it  looks  when  it  first  comes  from 
the  seed,  then  we  shall  remember  how  the  morn- 
ing-glory began  life. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  children  planted  their 
seeds  the  teacher  planted  a  quantity  in  a  box  by 
themselves. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  in  her  box  begin  to  break 
through  the  ground, a  few  are  taken  up  and  changes 
noticed  by  the  children.  Where  is  the  jelly?  (The 
plant  has  little  roots  now  and  they  have  gone  to 
work.)  Drawings  are  made  at  each  stage  of  the 
plant's  development. 

As  soon  as  the  leaves  are  above  ground  they 
are  compared  in  color,  size,  and  shape  with  the 
same  when  in  the  seed.  Look  closely  between  the 
two  leaves.  What  do  you  see?  (A  little  green 
dot.)  We  will  watch  and  see  what  becomes  of  it. 
They  will  find  later  that  this  "green  dot"  changes 
into  a  leaf.     Only  one?    Is  its  shape  the  same  as 


178  Special  Method  in  Science. 

that  of  the  two?  Draw  the  two  leaves  side  by  side 
on  the  board. 

But  this  was  not  all  that  the  "little  dot"  con- 
tained, for  they  see  a  small  bud  pushing-  right 
past  the  leaf,  and  what  has  it?  (Another  leaf 
and  a  bud.)  On  which  side  of  the  stem  does  this 
leaf  g"row?  On  the  side  opposite  to  the  other. 
Later  the  children  find  that  the  leaves  all  grow 
out  in  this  way — first  one  on  one  side,  then  one  on 
the  other.  They  admire  the  beauty  of  the  shape 
of  the  leaf  and  its  delicate  texture.  They  notice 
the  veining-  and  illustrate  at  the  board.  Why 
does  it  have  these  veins?  (They  are  the  troughs 
through  which  the  sap  passes  to  all  parts  of  the 
leaf.  They  also  hold  the  leaf  out,  g'iving-  it  its 
shape,  and  allowing  the  sun,  air,  and  moisture  to 
reach  all  parts  of  it.)  But  why  are  the  vines 
stretching  out  their  arms  to  us  so  pleadingly? 
(They  wish  us  to  help  them  to  stand.)  What  shall 
we  do  for  them?    (Give  them  strings  for  support.) 

After  awhile  the  children  notice  something 
growing  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  What  is  it? 
We  will  watch  it  and  see.  Some  of  these  turn  out 
to  be  branches,  others  flower  buds. 

The  flower  buds  are  watched  carefully  from  the 
time  they  are  big  enough  to  be  seen  until  they 
open  and  close  and  drawings  are  made  of  them 
showing  how  they  look  at  different  stages  of 
their  growth.  How  long  do  they  remain  in  blos- 
som?    Mark  certain  flowers  and  find  out.     (Prom 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  179 

mornin":  until  afternoon.)  Will  this  same  blossom 
open  again  to-morrow  morning?  Look  and  see. 
Can  you  tell  by  the  looks  of  a  closed  flower 
whether  it  has  blossomed  or  not?  How?  Picture 
side  by  side,  a  bud  that  will  open  in  the  morning 
and  one  that  has  opened  and  closed. 

What  do  you  notice  about  the  flowers  upon  the 
plants  raised  from  light  colored  seeds?  Those 
raised  from  the  dark  colored  seeds? 

What  becomes  of  the  flower  that  is  through 
blossoming"?  How  long  does  its  pretty  dress — 
the  corolla — remain  on  the  vine  after  it  is  through 
blossoming?  Watch  and  see.  Why  does  it  fall 
off?     (It  is  of  no  more  use.)     What  was  its  work? 

Let  us  look  at  this  fresh  dress.  (It  is  all  in 
one  piece,  but  you  can  see  where  five  pieces  were 
put  together  to  make  it.  The  seams  show.)  Let 
us  open  it  and  look  at  the  inside.  (The  stamens 
are  fastened  to  the  lower  part  of  this  dress.  There 
are  five  of  them,  one  on  each  piece  of  its  dress.) 
And  do  they  fall  off  with  the  dress?  (Yes.)  Are 
they  not  leaving  before  their  w^ork  is  done?  What 
is  their  work?  They  bear  the  pollen  that  makes 
the  seeds  grow.  Where  are  the  seeds?  Did  the 
stamens  shed  their  pollen  before  falling?  Notice 
the  open  flower  and  see  if  they  do.  How  does  the 
pollen  reach  the  seeds?  (It  falls  on  the  stigma 
and  passes  down  the  tube  to  the  seeds,  or  the  bees 
leave  pollen  which  they  have  gathered  from  some 
other  morning-glory  on  the  stigma  when  they  go 


180  Special  Method  in  Science. 

into  the  flower  for  the  nectar,  which  is  at  its  base; 
or  the  wind  blowing-  carries  the  pollen  from  one 
flower  to  another.)  Did  the  sepals  fall  with  the 
corolla?     (No,  they  stay  to  protect  the  seed-pod.) 

The  children  watch  the  growth  of  the  seed-pod 
on  several  flowers  which  they  may  select.  They 
see  that  finally  the  style  dries  up,  only  a  small 
portion  of  it  remaining.  Is  its  w^ork  done?  What 
did  it  have  to  do?  Notice  how  long  a  time  elapses 
after  the  blossom  opens  before  the  seeds  are 
ripened.  "What  happens  when  they  are  ripe? 
Three  doors  open  into  three  little  rooms,  in  each 
of  which  dwells  snugly  two  three-sided  seeds. 
These  seeds  drop  out  when  the  plant  is  disturbed. 

Now  we  have  found  out  how  the  seeds  happen 
to  have  such  a  queer  shape — six  of  them  were 
packed  closely  in  a  little  round  three-roomed 
house,  and  what  other  shape  would  have  packed 
so  well? 

See  Margaret  Morley's  "Flowers  and  their  Friends"  for 
additional  help. 

THE  AUSTRIAN  PINE. 

(A  Winter  Study.) 

Did  the  Christmas  tree  surprise  you  on  Christ- 
mas eve?  What  did  it  bring  you  that  you  did 
not  expect?  When  the  presents  were  all  off  and 
the  decorations  removed,  had  it  any  more  sur- 
prises for  you?  You  did  not  care  for  the  bare 
tree,  then?  This  bare  Christmas  tree  has  greater 
surprises  for  you  than  the  presents  gave.     It  is 


•  lUustraiice  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  181 

full  of  secrets  which  few  people  find  out.  Would 
you  like  to  find  some  of  them  out,  all  by  your- 
selves? 

But  we  must  become  better  acquainted  with 
the  tree  before  we  expect  it  to  tell  us  any  secrets, 
and  we  will  visit  one  that  has  not  been  cut  down. 
What  kind  of  a  tree  was  the  Christmas  tree?  Why 
was  an  evergreen  chosen?  What  was  its  name? 
Do  you  think  all  evergreen  trees  are  alike?  The 
children  find  out  by  examining"  the  foliage  of 
different  evergreen  trees  that  they  differ  greatly. 
The  other  differences  will  be  discovered  later. 

We  will  visit  the  tree  with  the  long,  stiff 
needles.  I  will  introduce  you  to  it.  Austrian 
Pine,  these  are  my  little  boys  and  girls  who  wish 
to  visit  you  often. 

On  this  first  day  the  children  learn  to  distin- 
guish the  Austrian  pine  from  other  evergreen 
trees  by  its  general  appearance.  They  know  it 
by  the  shade  of  green  of  its  dress;  its  straight, 
pointed  trunk;  its  arms  or  branches  which  extend 
out  nearly  straight  from  the  trunk, then  curve  up- 
wards; its  number  of  branches  starting  out  from 
the  same  circle  and  reaching  out  in  different  di- 
rections; the  gradual  shortening  of  the  branches 
from  below  upward.  After  learning  to  recognize 
the  tree  readily,  the  children  make  drawings, 
showing  its  general  shai:)e.  This  is  the  picture  of 
the  naked  tree  as  it  looked  after  it  had  lost  its 
leaves  in  the  story  of  "The  Unhappy  Pine  Tree." 


182  Special  Method  in  Science. 

Is  it  pretty?  What  gives  beauty  to  the  tree?  Its 
dress.  And  this  is  a  wonderful  dress.  Let  us 
see  of  what  it  is  made.  (Each  child  has  a  small 
twig.)  It  is  made  of  needles.  And  the  needles 
are  put  up  in  bundles,  only  two  in  a  bundle.  The 
wrapper  which  holds  them  together  is  around  only 
one  end. 

Let  us  look  at  one  needle.  The  children  meas- 
ure it.  It  is  longer  than  a  darning  needle  and  of 
different  shape,  being  round  on  the  outside  and 
nearly  flat  on  the  inside.  It  is  very  strong.  We 
can  hardly  pull  it  in  two.  Is  it  well  that  the  pine 
tree  has  such  needles?  Refer  to  the  story.  Not 
only  goats  but  caterpillars  and  insects  usually 
pass  the  leaves  of  this  tree  by.  Hail,  snow,  and 
sleet  cannot  injure  them  much.  Why  not?  Refer 
to  the  home  of  the  pine  tree.  This  (Normal,  111.) 
is  not  their  home. 

Pull  out  one  of  these  pairs  of  needles.  The 
children  find  that  it  is  set  very  deeply  and  firmly 
into  the  twig.  Why  is  this  well?  The  children 
discover  that  the  needles  in  a  package  so  fit  to- 
gether as  to  resemble  in  shape  a  darning  needle. 
Where  on  the  twig  are  they  set?  Do  you  like 
that  arrangement?  Why?  Does  the  Austrian 
pine  ever  lose  its  leaves,  as  do  the  maples  and 
oaks?'  How  do  you  know?  When  do  they  fall? 
Do  they  fall  singly  or  in  pairs?  What  color  are 
they  w^hen  they  fall?  Do  you  see  any  such  on  the 
tree  now?  If  so,  where?   How  old  are  the  needles 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades,  183 

when  they  fall?  You  can  not  tell  now.  Austrian 
Pine  thinks  you  do  not  know  it  well  enough  yet  to 
find  out  all  its  secrets. 

Now  tell  all  the  secrets  you  do  know  about  the 
package  of  needles.  Make  a  drawing"  of  them. 
What  secret  has  the  tree  failed  to  tell  you? 

We  have  been  talking  about  the  Austrian  Pine's 
dress.  Does  it  wear  any  ornaments?  The  cones. 
Where  does  it  wear  them?  Notice  this  carefully. 
Are  they  all  alike?  (Have  twigs  in  the  class  with 
cones  of  last  summer's  growth,  and  others  a  year 
older.)  Notice  color  and  size  of  each  set,  the  num- 
ber in  a  cluster  (if  you  are  so  fortunate  as  to  find 
two  or  three  together).  Notice  cones  under  the 
trees  and  compare  them  with  those  on  the  twig. 
They  are  like  the  older  cones  on  the  twig.  Do  you 
find  on  the  ground  any  of  the  little  cones?  Why 
not?  Their  work  is  not  done.  The  little  leaves  on 
the  elms  and  maples  did  not  leave  the  tree  until 
their  work  was  done,  neither  will  the  little  cones. 

Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  out  what  the  work  of 
the  cones  is.  These  cones  that  have  seen  two 
summers  are  chosen.  Where  on  the  twig  did  we 
find  them?  Draw  the  cone  when  first  brought 
into  the  room.  Draw  also  the  twig  with  the  cone 
upon  it,  fixing  its  place  on  the  twig.  The  chil- 
dren notice  the  queer  shapes  of  the  doors  with 
their  conical  little  knobs;  also  how  each  door  is 
braced  in  front  by  two  doors  at  its  side  and  one 
before  it.     The   doors  are  very  many,   and  are 


184  Special  Method  in  Science. 

closed  so  tig-htly  that  it  is  with  great  trouble  that 
we  get  them  open.  Will  the  cone  not  tell  us  what 
she  is  guarding-  so  carefully?  We  will  not  break 
into  her  houses.  We  will  lay  these  cones  where 
we  can  watch  them.  They  may  change  their 
minds  about  shutting  us  out.  If  possible  the  chil- 
dren should  hear  and  see  the  doors  pop  open.  This 
will  happen  after  they  have  been  in  the  warm 
room  a  few  hours. 

Now  that  the  cone  has  opened  her  doors  we 
will  go  in  and  see  if  we  can  find  what  secret  she 
was  keeping. 

The  children  discover  two  little  fairies  behind 
each  door,  each  with  a  large  wing.  How  cozily 
they  lie  in  the  little  room.  They  are  well  worth 
guarding.  Why?  Why  were  they  shut  in  so 
tightly?  What  will  open  the  doors  of  the  cones 
on  the  trees?  Warm  weather.  When  will  they 
open?  What  will  the  seed  fairies  do  then?  How 
will  the  wing  help  them?  The  tiny  cones  are 
placed  also  in  the  warm  room  and  left  there  for 
some  time?    Why  do  they  not  open? 

Some  old  cones  may  be  found  with  their  doors 
open.  Inside  are  no  good  seeds.  Why  is  that  so? 
The  fairies  flew  away  last  spring  when  the  warm 
sun  opened  the  doors.  The  children  now  make  a 
drawing  of  the  twig  with  cones  of  two  sizes.  They 
tell  the  secrets  of  the  cones.  They  draw  a  single 
door  with  the  two  seeds,  and  one  seed  by  itself,  and 
tell  the  secret  of  the  seed  fairies.     A  number  of 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primai-y  Grades.  185 

seeds  are  kept  for  planting  when  spring  shall 
come? 

What  else  do  we  tind  on  the  branch  besides 
leaves  and  cones?  Buds.  On  what  part  of  the 
twig"  do  you  find  these  buds?  Are  all  of  the  same 
shape?  The  children  find  that  some  are  large  and 
pointed,  others  are  round  and  flat,  while  others 
are  made  up  of  a  cluster  of  little  buds?  Why  this 
difference?  Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  out.  A 
pointed  bud  is  first  examined.  The  children  no- 
tice how  the  lower  scales  curve  downward.  (If 
kept  in  a  warm  room  more  of  the  scales  will  turn 
down.)  They  also  notice  the  great  number  of 
coverings. 

Are  they  thick  or  thin?  Soft  or  harsh?  How 
arranged?  All  of  same  length?  How  held  to- 
gether? (The  pitch  shows  itself  after  being  kept 
in  a  warm  room  some  time.)  The  covers  being 
carefully  removed  by  each  child  from  his  own 
bud,  they  are  delighted  to  find  what  they  think 
is  a  cone.  But  where  on  the  twig  did  we  find  the 
cones?  On  the  sides,  but  this  is  directly  at  the 
end.  What  does  grow  at  the  end  of  a  twig? 
Leaves  on  a  stem.  What  then  should  you  expect 
to  find  in  this  bud?  We  will  put  this  little  bare 
bud,  with  a  covered  one,  into  this  bottle  of  alco- 
hol. It  will  keep  them  fresh,  and  how  shall  we 
label  it?  We  will  say  we  do  not  kvtw  what  this  is. 
But  what  do  you  think  it  ought  to  be?  Another 
secret  which  the  tree  is  not  willing  to  tell  us  until 


186  Special  Method  in  Science. 

we  know  her  better.  What  was  the  first  secret 
she  kept  from  us?  When  may  we  surely  know  the 
secret  of  the  bud?  Tell  the  secrets  which  you 
know  of  the  pointed  buds,  and  the  one  which  the 
tree  is  keeping"  from  you,  but  which  you  think  you 
can  g-uess. 

Now,  let  us  see  if  we  can  find  out  the  secret  of 
the  round,  flat  buds.  The  children  find  that  the 
outside  covers  are  much  like  those  of  the  pointed 
buds,  but  inside  of  a  few  covers  they  find  from  five 
to  ten  tiny  buds  crowded  all  the  way  around  a 
small  pointed  bud.  The  inside  covers  are  soft 
and  transparent.  When  uncovered,  the  children 
are  apt  to  think  they  have  ag-ain  found  cones. 
But  where  do  we  find  these  buds?  Do  you  find 
such  clusters  of  cones  on  the  tree?  The  children 
notice  the  resemblance  between  the  pointed  bud 
in  the  center  here,  and  the  pointed  bud  we  exam- 
ined before.  They  tell  what  they  think  this  bud 
contains,  and  what  they  think:  may  spring  from 
the  center  bud.  The  naked,  tiny  buds  are  placed 
in  alcohol  with  a  bud  as  we  found  it  on  the  tree. 
What  shall  we  label  it. 

There  is  still  another  kind  of  bud,  a  clustered 
bud,  not  covered  to  appear  like  a  single  bud  as 
was  the  preceding.  Does  it  contain  a  pointed 
bud?  Where  on  the  twig  was  it  found?  On  what 
kind  of  a  twig?  These  buds  are  also  preserved. 
Are  there  any  other  kinds  of  buds?  The  bottles 
of  buds  are  numbered,  and  the  children  from  now 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  187 

till  spring-  frequently  review  their  knowledge  of 
these  buds,  and  their  suppositions  in  regard  to 
them. 

Now,  this  branch  on  which  the  needles  and 
buds  and  cones  grew  may  have  something  to  tell 
us.  Notice  carefully  the  curled-back  covers  of 
this  pointed  bud.  Do  you  find  anything  like  this 
on  the  twig?  Where?  How  do  you  suppose  those 
came  there?  The  children  are  quick  to  catch  the 
idea  that  the  bud  left  them  when  it  began  to 
grow.  What  did  it  grow  into?  A  little  twig. 
How  long?  The  children  usually  suggest  that 
that  is  exactly  what  this  pointed  bud  will  grow 
into.  If  so,  what  must  that  be  in  the  pointed  bud? 
A  little  twig  packed  away  in  a  very  small  trunk. 
And  what  was  the  green  you  saw  in  the  bud?  The 
leaves.  How  long  did  it  take  this  three  or  four 
inches  of  twig  to  grow?     A  year. 

The  children  see  that  it  must  have  taken  many 
years  for  the  tree  to  become  so  large  at  that  rate 
of  growth.  Look  back  and  see  if  you  can  find 
where  another  bud  started.  How  old  is  that  part 
of  the  twig?  Find  another  year's  growth.  An- 
other. Still  another.  Are  there  leaves  on  last 
year's  growth?  On  the  second?  On  the  third? 
On  the  fourth?  On  the  fifth?  Sometimes  they 
will  find  the  leaves  mostly  or  wholly  gone  from 
the  five  years'  growth,  and  sometimes  there  are 
-leaves  on  the  six-year  old  twig.  Where  did  the 
brown  leaves  go?  How  old  when  they  fell?  What 


188  Speciai  Method  in  Science. 

did  they  leave  behind  to  show  that  they  had  been 
here?  A  queer  little  three-cornered  card,  often 
turned  down  at  the  top. 

Notice  the  twigs  with  the  round,  flat  buds,  or 
the  lar«-e  clustered  ones.  The  children  find  the 
year's  g'rowth  there  to  measure  only  from  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  to  an  inch.  Why  so  much 
shorter  than  on  twig's  with  long-  pointed  buds? 
Its  food  had  to  be  divided  with  those  little  stran- 
ger buds  that  clustered  around  it,  so  it  could  not 
g-row  so  much. 

Did  you  ever  try  to  break  a  twig"  or  a  branch 
from  an  Austrian  pine?     Was  it  easily  done? 

After  a  snow  storm  the  teacher  takes  occasion 
to  call  the  attention  of  the  children  to  the  sad 
appearance  of  the  tree.  Its  branches  no  more 
reach  up  toward  the  sky,  but  droop  to  the  earth. 
It  seems  as  if  the  tree  could  never  hold  itself  up  as 
it  did  before  the  storm.  The  children  make  a  draw- 
ing- of  it  now  and  compare  this  picture  with  the 
first  one  drawn.  Why  does  not  the  heavy  snow 
break  off  the  branches?  Show  sections  of  the 
tree,  where  branches  have  g-rown,  that  the  chil- 
dren may  see  how  well  it  guards  ag-ainst  such 
accidents. 

What  secrets  have  you  found  out  about  the 
twig-  and  branch?  You  may  draw  a  branch  of 
seven  years'  g-rowth.  If  they  have  observed  care- 
fully they  will  put  no  needles  on  the  oldest  g-rowth, 
and  perhaps  none  on  the  sixth  or  fifth.     But  here 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  189 

are  side  shoots.  From  what  did  they  come?  No- 
tice where  they  start  out.  From  what  buds  do 
they  come?  Can  you  tell?  Then  we  must  also 
find  this  out  next  spring".  Can  you  tell  yet  from 
what  the  cones  will  come?  We  shall  have  to 
watch  the  tree  closely  next  spring,  else  it  will 
keep  this  secret  from  us.  Now  what  are  all  the 
secrets  which  the  Austrian  pine  is  keeping"  from 
us  this  winter? 

Do  you  like  this  tree?  What  do  you  like  about 
it?  It  is  a  useful  tree,  too.  For  what  is  it  used? 
For  lumber.  Children  name  articles  made  from 
pine.  The  birds  come  to  its  shelter  when  they 
return  early  in  the  spring.  The^  winter  birds — 
crows,  owls,  etc.,  spend  much  time  in  its  branches, 
which  shelter  them  from  the  cold  winds. 

As  a  summing  up  of  many  facts  discovered  in 
regard  to  the  Austrian  pine,  and  a  reminder  of 
their  pleasant  acquaintance  with  it,  a  collection 
of  the  following  may  be  mounted  on  stiff  card- 
board: A  pair  of  green  leaves,  a  pointed  bud,  a 
round  flat  bud,  an  open  clustered  bud;  cones  of 
one,  two,  and  three  seasons'  growth.  (The  cone 
of  two  seasons  will  need  to  be  varnished  to  keep 
it  from  opening.)  A  cone  scale,  two  seeds,  a  bare 
twig,  a  twig  with  leaves,  cross  and  vertical  sec- 
tions of  the  wood. 


190  Special  Method  in  Science. 

THE  SCOTCH  PINE. 

About  what  evergreen  tree  have  we  studied? 

Are  all  evergreen  trees  alike?  The  children 
discover  by  examination  of  the  foliage,  and  ob- 
servation of  the  g*eneral  appearance  of  the  trees, 
that  there  are  many  different  varieties.  Some 
have  two,  three,  or  five  needles  inclosed  at  their 
base  in  a  sheath,  some  have  short  needles  all 
around  the  twig,  others  have  needles  along  the 
sides  and  in  front  but  not  on  the  back  of  the  twig, 
while  others  have  flat,  fan-shaped  foliage. 

We  wish  to  become  better  acquainted  with  the 
tree  that  bears  these  needles — two  in  a  sheath,  not 
more  than  two  and  a  half  or  three  inches  long. 

The  children  visit  a  number  of  trees  and  learn 
to  recognize  them  by  their  outline,  the  color  of 
their  branches — a  bronze  or  yellowish  brown, — the 
irregularity  of  many  of  the  lower  branches,  and 
the  mode  of  branching — in  whorls. 

What  does  each  whorl  of  branches  tell  us? 
That  a  year  has  been  added  to  the  life  of  the  tree. 
How  old  is  this  tree?  We  cannot  go  to  the  top, 
but  we  can  count  the  whorls  of  branches  up  some 
distance  on  the  trunk,  then  count  the  number  of 
sections  marking  a  year's  growth  on  a  branch. 

From  what  did  this  tree  grow?  (A  seed.)  Did 
you  ever  see  one  of  its  seeds?  Where  shall  we 
look  for  them?  In  a  cone.  Where  do  we  find  the 
cones?  Do  you  see  any  on  the  trees  now?  Let 
the  teacher  lead  the  children  to  some  tree  where 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  191 

they  can  make  the  discovery  that  there  are  cones 
of  two  sizes  on  the  tree.  Let  this  be  done  at 
once  (early  in  April,  before  the  new  growth  has 
started.)  The  children  will  need  to  look  closely 
to  discover  the  small  cones  of  only  a  year's  growth. 
They  are  at  the  sides  of  the  eiids  of  some  twigs. 
From  one  to  three  inches  back  from  the  end  of 
the  twig  are  larger  cones.  These  have  lived 
through  two  summers.  Let  the  children  gather 
several  cones  of  each  size  and  take  to  the  school 
room.  Supply  each  child  with  one  of  the  large 
cones.  How  many  little  doors?  (The  children 
may  try  to  count  them.)  Let  us  see  if  the  cone 
will  let  us  open  some  of  the  doors  and  look 
into  the  rooms.  (The  children  try  to  raise  the 
scales,  but  they  cannot  do  it.)  Why  are  these 
doors  fastened  so  tightly?  What  precious  thing 
inside  is  the  cone  guarding  so  carefully?  We  will 
not  force  open  the  doors,  but  lay  these  cones  back 
with  the  others. 

After  the  cones  have  been  in  the  school  room 
some  time — perhaps  for  two  or  three  days  or  less 
— the  large  cones  will  begin  to  pop  open.  Happy 
are  the  children  if  they  see  and  hear  this  burst- 
ing of  prison  doors. 

The  smaller  cones  dry  up  without  opening. 

After  the  large  cones  have  opened,  each  child 
is  again  provided  with  a  cone.  Let  us  peep  into 
the  little  rooms.  What  do  you  find?  Inside  of 
each  door  (scale)  snugly  lie  two  plump  seeds,  each 


192  Special  Method  in  Science. 

with  a  large,  light  wing-.  Children  show  by  draw- 
ings how  nicely  they  fit  into  their  close  quarters. 

They  may  now  examine  the  door  more  closely. 
They  notice  how  one  door  is  braced  at  the  bottom 
by  two  others  and  it  in  turn  helps  to  brace  an- 
other door.  The  queer  shapes  of  the  doors,  and 
use  of  such  a  shape,  and  the  curious  knobs  and 
their  position  on  the  door  are  all  items  of  interest 
to  the  children.  The  doors  are  rough  and  harsh 
on  the  outside.  Is  it  so  on  the  inside?  Any  rea- 
son for  the  difference? 

What  caused  these  cones  to  open  in  the  house? 
The  warm  atmosphere.  Would  they  never  have 
opened  on  the  tree?  Yes,  the  warm  spring  sun 
would  have  caused  them  to  open  their  doors. 
When  the  sun  has  opened  the  cones  on  the  trees 
what  will  become  of  the  seeds?  There  is  nothing 
to  hold  them  in,  they  must  fall  out.  As  each 
starts  away  from  its  home,  the  fairy-like  wing,  by 
the  aid  of  the  wind,  carries  it  away.  After  a 
while  perhaps  it  will  reach  the  ground,  and  were 
it  in  its  own  country  it  might  spring  up  and  make 
a  new  tree,  but  our  soil  and  climate  do  not  suit 
the  seeds  and  they  die,  usually. 

The  children,  however,  may  sow  their  seeds  in 
a  box  in  the  school  room  and  watch  their  devel- 
opment. Why  do  not  the  tiny  cones  open?  They 
are  not  old  enough.  The  children  will  find  that 
the  warm  sun  this  summer  will  not  open  their 
doors,  it  will  only  make  the  cones  grow. 


llliLstrative  Lessons  for  PHmary  Grades.  193 

There  is  quite  a  marked  difference  in  the  ap- 
pearance of  some  Scotch  pines.  While  one  tree 
has  the  whorls  of  leaves  separated  by  a  bare  stem 
for  one  and  one-half  or  two  inches,  others  have 
not  this  peculiarity. 

Let  the  children  watch  the  growth  of  the  buds 
on  these  two  differing-  trees.  How  delighted  they 
will  be  to  find  what  causes  that  bare  space  on  the 
stem,  and  who  will  be  the  first  to  find  the  little 
new  cones  that  come  from  the  new  growth. 

This  is  merely  a  beginning  to  a  most  enjoyable 
study. 

THE  COMMON  CROW. 

How  do  you  keep  warm  this  cold  weather? 
How  do  we  protect  horses,  cows,  and  sheep  from 
the  cold  winds,  and  the  snows  and  sleet  storms? 
What  do  we  do  for  the  chickens,  geese,  ducks,  and 
turkeys? 

But  there  are  some  birds  for  which  we  do  not 
think  of  providing  shelter,  even  on  the  coldest 
days,  or  in  the  most  severe  storms.  What  are 
they?  Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  how  one  of  these 
birds — the  crow — lives  through  the  winter.  Do 
you  all  know  the  crow?  How  can  you  tell  it  from 
other  birds?  It  is  large  and  has  a  glossy  black 
coat.  Its  bill,  legs,  arul  toes  are  also  black.  In- 
stead of  singing  or  chirping  it  says,  "Caw." 

What  keeps  this  queer  bird  from  freezing? 
Study  its  feather  coat,  comparing  it  with  that  of 
the  chicken,  previously  studied.     How  adapted 


194  Special  Method  in  Science. 

for  keeping  out  the  cold  and  snow  and  shedding 
the  rain.  How  are  the  legs  and  toes  protected 
when  roosting"? 

Where  does  it  make  its  home  in  the  winter? 
Usually  in  evergreen  trees.  Is  this  a  good  place? 
Why?  The  thick  foliage  protects  it  from  the  cold 
winds  and  it  is  hidden  from  the  view  of  those  who 
might  wish  to  shoot  it. 

Does  it  need  anything  beside  a  good  coat  and 
a  sheltered  home  to  keep  it  alive  in  the  winter? 
It  must  have  food.  What  does  it  eat?  Let  us 
watch  this  winter  and  see  If  we  can  find  out  for 
ourselves.  The  teacher  should  frequently  ask  for 
the  results  of  the  children's  observations  and  give 
them  her  own,  then  they  will  think  her  questions 
are  not  idle  ones.  The  children  may  find  that  it 
eats  mice,  carrion,  hens'  eggs,  corn,  acorns,  nuts, 
frozen  apples  from  the  boughs  of  trees,  and  the 
fruits  of  poison  ivy,  poison  sumac,  and  other  su- 
macs, sand  and  gravel.  They  may  discover  also 
that  it  drinks  a  great  deal  of  water. 

Careful  observations  made  by  the  children  will 
arouse  in  them  a  more  than  transient  interest  in 
the  object  studied.  This,  the  teacher  should  work 
for  constantly,  and  feel  quite  sure  that  her  work 
amounts  to  but  little  if  the  children  are  not  inter- 
ested enough  to  watch,  outside  of  school,  the 
movements  of  the  animals  studied. 

Let  the  children  tell  what  they  have  observed 
in  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  the  crow  catches 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Pnmary  Grades.  195 

and  kills  the  mice.  What  does  it  do  with  the  hens' 
eggs?  Where  and  how  does  it  get  the  fruits  of 
ivies  and  sumacs?  Why  eat  sand  and  pebbles? 
Recall  what  they  discovered  in  the  chicken's  giz- 
zard. How  is  the  bill  fitted  for  getting  this  kind 
of  food?  It  is  long,  pointed,  hard,  and  strong. 
Does  it  find  plenty  of  food?  Did  you  ever  hear 
this  expression,  "As  poor  as  a  crow?"  Many  times 
crows  have  a  hard  time  in  the  winter  to  find 
enough  food.  They  become  very  poor  and  some- 
times they  even  starve  to  death. 

Can  you  get  close  enough  to  crows,  usually,  to 
tell  how  fast  they  eat?  Why  are  they  so  afraid? 
Why  do  men  and  boys  shoot  them?  Are  they  any 
more  afraid  of  a  man  who  carries  a  gun  than  of 
one  without?  How  can  crows  get  a  chance  to  eat 
if  they  are  watching  for  men  all  the  time?  They 
have  sentinels  out  watching.  These  w^rn  the 
flock  of  any  approach  of  danger.  What  kind  of 
warning  do  they  give?  How^  is  this  warning  re- 
ceived by  the  crows?     What  follows? 

What  takes  the  crow  away  from  danger?  Its 
strong  large  wings  carry  it  away.  Does  it  fly  high? 
How  do  you  know?  Does  flying  seem  to  tire  it? 
Study  the  adaptability  of  its  wings  to  flight. 

Do  crows  fly  singly  or  in  flocks?  Children  no- 
tice. Is  this  so  at  all  times  of  the  year?  We  will 
notice  how  they  go  next  spring. 

Have  they  no  other  way  of  getting  around  than 
by  flying?    They  walk  on  the  ground.     Have  you 


196  Special  Method  in  Science. 

ever  seen  them  walk?  Were  their  steps  long  or 
short?  How  did  they  hold  their  bodies?  Do  they 
ever  run?  Do  they  hop?  What  were  they  doing 
on  the  ground?  Children,  picture  one  as  you  saw 
\t  there. 

Did  you  ever  see  its  tracks  in  the  mud  or  in 
the  snow?  How  many  tracks  did  each  foot  leave? 
Picture  on  the  board.  How  did  it  differ  from  a 
chicken's  tracks? 

What  is  the  crow's  work  in  the  winter?  Is 
this  all  it  does  the  whole  year  through?  No;  in 
spring  it  builds  its  nest.  Did  you  ever  see  it 
building  its  nest?  IJave  you  ever  seen  a  crow's 
nest? 

Why  do  we  so  seldom  see  one?  They  are  built 
high  up  in  a  tree — very  often  an  evergreen  tree. 

Have  a  nest  in  the  class  if  possible.  This  nest 
was  taken  from  a  tree  after  all  the  little  crows 
were  grown  up.  The  crows  never  use  the  same 
nest  for  two  seasons,  so  we  knew  they  would  not 
need  their  old  home  any  more. 

Of  what  is  it  built?  The  outside  is  made  of 
twigs  and  sticks,  the  inner  wall  of  grasses, leaves, 
and  bark  from  cedar  trees  or  grape  vines.  Some 
of  their  nests  are  lined  with  hair. 

Early  next  spring  we  will  begin  watching  the 
crows  to  see  if  we  can  find  in  what  trees  they 
build  their  nests,  and  how  they  get  the  sticks, 
etc.,  to  the  trees. 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  l97 

How  do  you  know  sometimes  that  the  crows 
are  about  when  you  cannot  see  them?  They  flap 
their  wing's  noisily  and  cry  "Caw!  caw!" 

Abbott  says  that  crows  have  twenty-seven 
distinct  cries,  each  of  which  is  accompanied  b}^  a 
different  act.  It  would  be  interesting"  for  teacher 
and  pupils  to  observe  closely  and  see  if  they 
notice  any  connection  between  the  movements  of 
the  crows  and  their  different  notes. 

THE  SCREECH-OWL. 

What  birds  have  been  with  us  all  winter? 
Some  of  these  birds  are  more  often  heard  than 
seen,  which  are  these?  The  owls.  Why  do  we 
see  them  so  seldom?  Have  you  ever  heard  them? 
What  sound  did  they  make?  Some  cry,  "Hoo! 
hoo!"  others  make  a  sound  variously  likened  to 
**the  coo  of  a  dove  with  the  sweetness  left  out," 
"the  whining"  of  a  puppy,"  *'the  grating  of  ma- 
chinery," *'the  wailing-  of  a  little  child." 

We  shall  talk  of  the  latter.  On  account  of  the 
unpleasant  music  which  they  make  they  have  been 
given  a  name  of  which  they  cannot  be  very  proud. 
What  is  it?     The  screech-owls. 

Have  you  ever  seen  a  screech-owl?  What  was 
it  doing?  What  kind  of  looking  bird  was  it? 
Perhaps  of  a  grayish  color,or  it  may  be  of  a  fusty 
red  color,  with  lighter  and  darker  mctrking-s.  It 
is  from  eight  and  a  half  to  ten  inches  lon^.  The 
children  show  this  by  placing  the  hands  so  far 


198  Special  Method  in  Science. 

apart.  It  has  a  round  head,  with  two  bright  yel- 
low eyes  in  front,  each  surrounded  by  a  disc  of 
short,  stiff  feathers.  Its  head  is  surmounted  by 
what  looks  to  be  two  pointed  ears.  The  head 
makes  us  think  of  a  cat.  Its  bill  is  short  and 
curved. 

Where  were  the  screech-owls  which  you  saw? 
Peeping-  out  from  the  hollow  of  a  tree  or  among 
the  thick  foliage.  Very  likely  you  nearly  passed 
an  owl  without  seeing  it,  for  they  keep  very  quiet 
and  do  not  cry  out  if  they  see  a  person  coming. 
Its  color  helps  the  owl  to  escape  notice,  being 
that  of  the  branches  of  the  tree  in  which  it  sits, 
and  its  bright  eyes,  which  might  attract  atten^ 
tion,  are  nearly  closed. 

Would  you  like  to  find  out  all  you  can  about 
how  the  owl  makes  a  living? 

At  what  time  of  day  was  it  when  you  heard 
the  screech-owl?  Was  it  talking  in  its  sleep? 
No,  the  night  is  the  busy  time  of  day  for  the 
screech-owl.  About  what  is  it  so  busy?  Getting 
its  dinner  and  breakfast.  These  are  such  hearty 
meals  that  it  needs  no  luncheon  in  the  middle  of 
the  day. 

What  do  they  find  to  eat?  Mice,  English  spar- 
rows and  other  small  birds,  eggs  of  birds,  frogs, 
small  snakes,  fish,  grasshoppers,  crickets,  beet- 
les, moths,  the  cock-chafer  so  injurious  to  fruit 
trees,  cut-worms  which,  like  the  owl,  turn  their 
night  into  day. 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  199 

They  are  very  fond  of  mice.  Let  us  see  how 
they  catch  and  eat  them.  Where  do  they  find 
them?  In  shocks  of  corn,  in  their  field  nests, 
around  barns  and  corn  cribs,  running-  over  the 
snow.  How  do  they  catch  them?  Swoop  down 
upon  them  and  grasp  them  with  their  long,  sharp 
claws.  Study  the  very  sharp,  long",  strong-,  curved 
claws  on  the  strong,  flexible  toes,  as  to  their 
adaptability  to  catch  and  hold  prey.  Notice  the 
reversible  outer  toe.  How  does  the  owl  use  it? 
We  are  very  glad  that  the  owl  kills  the  little 
mouse  almost  instantly,  so  it  does  not  suffer. 

How  does  it  eat  the  mouse?  Often  tosses  it 
up  with  its  bill  in  such  a  way  that  the  head  comes 
down  into  the  owl's  mouth,  then  it  makes  one  big 
gulp,  but  often  a  second  is  needed  before  the 
mouse  is  down  tail  and  all.  Are  you  surprised 
that  it  eats  the  whole  mouse?  What  parts  should 
you  think  it  might  better  have  left  out?  The 
hair,  teeth,  and  bones.  Examine  these  little  balls 
found  at  the  foot  of  a  tree  in  which  an  owl  had  a 
nest.  The  children  find  here  hair,  teeth,  bones, 
feathers,  etc.  Where  could  these  have  come  from? 
The  owl,  a  few  hours  after  eating  a  mouse  or  a 
bird,  throws  up  one  of  these  balls.  If  a  caged 
owl  is  a  possibility,  let  the  children  verify  this 
from  their  own  experience. 

Why  do  not  the  mice  get  out  of  the  owl's  way? 
The  owl  makes  almost  no  noise  when  flying,  on 
account  of  the  soft  feathers  which  line  the  wings 


200  Special  Method  in  Science. 

and  cover  the  body.  Study  the  wing's  with  refer- 
ence to  their  fitness  for  noiseless  flight. 

At  what  time  did  you  say  the  screech-owl 
catches  the  mice?  At  nig-ht.  Both  like  to  hunt 
after  dark.  How  can  the  owl  see  the  little  mouse? 
It  has  large,  brig-ht  eyes.  These  are  in  front  of 
its  head  so  that  it  can  fix  both  upon  one  object. 
Study  the  eye.  How  large  the  pupil  is!  Why? 
The  pupil  is  a  hole  through  which  the  light 
passes  into  the  eye.  Liken  to  a  window,  This 
window  is  very  large  in  the  owl's  eye  and  admits 
much  light.  Notice  the  yellow  curtain — iris — 
which  surrounds  this  pupil.  Only  a  little  of  it 
shows  at  night.  Let  the  teacher  explain  the  use 
of  the  iris. 

Owls  often  know  when  a  mouse  is  near  even 
though  that  mouse  be  out  of  sight.  How  is  that? 
It  hears  it?  Where  are  its  ears?  The  children 
will  call  the  tufts  of  feathers  on  the  top  of  its 
head  the  ears.  Let  them  discover  that  there  are 
no  ears  there.  They  will  find  large  ears,  covered 
by  feathers,  just  outside  the  disc  of  feathers  sur- 
rounding the  eye.  This  is  the  only  bird  that  has 
an  outer  ear.  Notice  how  the  feathers  are  ar- 
ranged just  outside  the  ear.  How  does  this  help 
its  hearing?  Why  is  it  well  that  the  ears  are  cov- 
ered with  feathers? 

What  else  does  the  owl  eat?  Small  birds. 
These,  too,  it  kills  almost  immediately.  How  does 
it  catch  them?   Swallow  them  whole?   No.    Tears 


llluslrative  Lesswxs  for  Primary  Grades.  201 

them  in  pieces.  Do  the  birds  know  that  the  owl 
is  their  enemy?  How  do  they  treat  it?  If  they 
find  an  owl  in  the  day  time  they  make  a  terrible 
commotion.  All  the  birds  gather  tog-ether  and 
scream  at  it,  flying-  as  close  to  it  as  they  dare. 
When  it  flies  away  they  follow  it  and  keep  calling- 
it  hard  names. 

How  does  it  catch  its  other  food?  How  much 
of  this  food  can  it  get  in  the  winter.  Does  it  go 
out  hunting  on  the  coldest  nights?  In  the  warm 
weather  it  often  stores  up  enough  food  to  last  it 
a  week  or  more,  and  mature  owls  often  go  a  week 
without  any  food,  not  seeming  to  mind  it.  Give 
instances  of  the  storing,  showing  what  they  lay  in 
store. 

What,  besides  food,  does  it  need?  Water.  It 
is  a  great  drinker.  Owls  are  sometimes  caught 
by  cutting  holes  in  the  ice.  They  come  here  to 
drink  and  are  captured. 

Is  the  screech-owl's  coat  well  fitted  for  a  bird 
which  must  make  a  living  in  the  winter  as  well 
as  in  the  cold,  damp  nights  in  warmer  weather? 
Study  carefully  the  plumage  of  the  owl  as  adapted 
to  its  protection  from  cold  and  damp.  Unlike 
many  other  birds,  the  legs  are  covered  their  whole 
length,  and  the  feathers  even  run  down  each  toe. 
What  care  does  it  take  of  this  thick,  soft,  light 
coat?  It  bathes  very  frequently  and  enjoys  its 
bath  greatly. 


202  Special  Method  in  Science. 

We  have  learned  how  the  owl  makes  a  living" 
for  itself.  Does  it  never  care  for  others?  There 
must  be  little  owls  sometimes.  When  do  you 
think  the  little  owls  come?  In  warm  weather,  in 
May  or  June.  Have  you  ever  seen  an  owlet? 
Where  was  it?  Perhaps  in  a  rotten  hole  in  an 
apple  tree?  How  far  from  the  ground  was  the 
hole?  Not  higher  than  this  room,  ten  feet.  How 
is  the  nest  made?  The  owls  choose  a  hole  in  a 
tree,  they  do  not  make  one,  as  does  the  wood- 
pecker. This  hole  is  often  not  lined  at  all.  There 
is  rotten  wood  in  the  bottom, and  often  dry  leaves 
which  have  been  blown  into  it;  but  .sometimes 
the  mother  adds  a  few  feathers  from  her  breast, 
and  sometimes  the  parents  line  the  nest  roughly 
with  dry  g-rass. 

What  kind  of  eggs  are  laid  in  this  nest?  Four 
or  more  round,  white  eggs.  Which  bird  sits  on 
the  eggs?  The  female;  and  during-  the  day  the 
male,  too,  sits  there  if  the  nest  is  roomy  enough; 
if  not,  he  chooses  a  hollow  tree  near  by.  How 
long-  does  it  take  the  eggs  to  hatch?  About  one 
month  after  the  first  egg  is  laid  the  little  owls 
are  out  of  the  shell. 

How  do  they  look  when  first  hatched?  JDid 
you  ever  see  one?  If  possible,  the  children  should 
see  one  before  the  season  is  over.  It  is  a  sight 
they  will  never  forget.  The  owlets  are  at  first 
covered  with  a  yellowish-white,  downy  coat. 
They  look  like  fluffy  balls. 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  203 

How  long-  do  they  stay  in  the  nest?  About  a 
month.  Then  they  scramble  out  on  the  branches. 
They  can  climb  like  cats.  Did  you  ever  try  to 
catch  one?  What  did  it  do?  Sna^iped  its  bill 
viciously. 

How  are  they  cared  for  all  this  time  while 
growing"  up?  Both  father  and  mother  are  kept 
very  busy  providing"  these  hearty  children  with 
food.  They  must  work  early  and  late.  It  would 
be  a  sad  thing"  for  the  babies  if  one  of  their  pa- 
rents should  be  killed  ere  they  were  old  enough 
to  provide  for  themselves.  We  hope  for  their 
sake  that  this  may  never  happen.  Before  cold 
weather  comes,  every  owlet  is  g"rown  and  able  to 
care  for  himself. 

Frequent  reviews  should  be  made  by  topic, as, 
"Tell  how  the  eyes  fit  the  screech-owl  for  work  at 
nig'ht,"or,  "In  what  respect  does  the  owl  resemble 
the  cat?"  (Its  head  looks  like  the  cat's,  it  hunts 
at  nig"ht,  it  likes  mice  and  birds  to  eat,  it  can 
climb,  etc.) 

THE  WILD  ROSE. 

The  wild  rose  is  in  full  bloom  in  June,  before 
our  schools  are  closed,  and  is  a  very  simple  flower 
for  study.  The  following"  are  some  of  the  points 
in  which  the  children  will  be  interested: 

It  presents  no  loud  color,  but  passes  from  pure 
white,  which  is  somewhat  rare,  to  intense  pink, 
throug^h  all  the  intermediate  tints.     Not  unfre- 


204  Special  Method  in  Science. 

quently  we  find  in  a  single  flower  exquisite  mark- 
ings and  shadings.  Its  fragrance,  too,  is  as 
delightful  as  its  coloring. 

When  the  sun  is  shining  the  mature  rose  spreads 
wide  its  petals,  catching  every  ray  which  comes 
its  way,  but  when  darkness  reigns  it  closes,  and 
says  to  the  world,  "Good  night."  Does  it  close, 
also,  before  and  during  a  storm?  Watch  and  see. 
The  closed  flower  is  as  beautiful  as  the  open  one. 
When  you  have  seen  one  you  have  not  seen  all, 
for  there  are  many  different  arrangements  of  the 
petals  in  closing,  but  in  each  the  adaptation  is  so 
perfect  that  one  wonders  that  any  other  plan 
could  have  answered  so  well.  Do  the  petals 
close  at  night?  Why  should  the  rose  close  at 
night?  If  we  notice  the  texture  of  one  of  the  pe- 
tals we  find  its  two  sides  quite  unlike.  The  soft, 
velvety  upper  side  might  easily  be  marred  by  the 
dew,  while  the  coarser  under  side  seems  better 
fitted  to  cope  with  it.  This  suggests  what  may 
be  one  reason  for  closing.  Later  we  may  find  a 
better  one. 

Any  child  can  find  out  how  long  the  petals  re- 
main after  the  flower  opens  by  watching  carefully 
the  unfolding  of  certain  buds  which  he  has 
marked,  but  he  must  bear  in  mind  that  storms  of 
wind  or  rain  often  cut  the  tender  lives  short. 

Although  each  petal  usually  performs  its  part 
in  closing,  occasionally  we  find  one,  like  a  willful 
child,  standing  off  by  itself,  rolled  up  to  resemble 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  205 

a  bud.  Sometimes,  too,  one  little  petal  will  creep 
out  of  the  bud  many  hours  before  the  others  are 
ready.  It  looks  too  dismal  to  be  enjoying"  its 
joke. 

If  there  is  room  in  the  school-house  yard,  wild 
roses  might  be  planted  there.  Here  the  children 
will  discover  many  interesting-  facts  about  their 
appearance  and  growth. 

About  the  time  that  the  petals  fall,  the  sta- 
mens change  their  bright  color  for  a  dark  brown, 
and  later  this  color  gives  place  to  black.  Their 
work  is  done,  although  they  do  not  pass  out  of 
si^ht.  The  only  part  of  the  rose  now  especially 
noticeable  is  the  g"reen  seed  cup  with  the  sepals 
fastened  to  its  rim,  and  falling  back  over  its  sides. 
We  had  noticed  this  cup  but  little  when  the  petals 
stood  about  and  above  it,  but  it  has  been  growing 
quite  rapidly  all  of  the  time.  Why  should  this 
cup  remain  while  the  petals  fall  and  the  stamens 
fade?  There  is  not  much  more  beauty  to  it  than 
to  a  little  g"reen  apple  which  it  much  resembles. 
We  will  open  one  of  these  cups — a  larg*e  one.  In- 
side we  lind  a  number  of  shining  yellow  seeds. 
They  form  a  circle  around  the  inside  of  the  cup. 
All  are  closely  packed  tog^ether.  The  outer  seeds 
are  rounded  on  the  outside.  There  is  no  definite 
number  of  sides  to  each  seed,  they  differ  consid- 
erably in  shape,  and  we  find,  too,  some  seeds  that 
seem  to  be  dried  up.     Why  is  this? 


206  Special  Method  in  Science. 

We  will  g-o  back  a  little.  The  children  have 
noticed  that  when  they  touched  the  stamens,  a 
yellowish  powder,  the  pollen,  covered  the  tip  of 
the  fing-er.  The  little  pollen  sacks  have  burst  and 
the  pollen  is  free.  Much  of  it  falls  on  the  little 
green  cushion  in  the  center  of  the  flower.  By 
opening-  one  of  the  smaller  cups  it  will  be  seen 
that  this  cushion  is  the  feathery  top  of  many 
small  tubes  which  reach  down  to  the  seeds.  The 
pollen  touches  a  little  seed  and  says,  "Wake  up 
and  grow,"  and  the  seed  obeys.  The  ovules  that 
did  not  develop  into  seeds  failed  to  receive  the 
message  so  they  did  not  grow.  The  petals  need 
to  guard  the  pollen  that  its  seed  children  may 
thrive.  Does  the  closing-  of  the  rose  at  night  help 
to  do  this?  Is  it  well  the  petals  are  so  delicate 
on  the  upper  side?     Why? 

For  how  long  a  time  the  seeds  g-row  before 
they  are  ripened  can  be  learned  by  the  children 
by  recording  the  time  of  the  falling  of  the  petals 
on  a  few  marked  roses. 

As  the  seeds  g-row  the  little  cup  which  holds 
them  grows.  At  last  when  they  are  ripened,  the 
cup  proclaims  it  to  the  world  by  its  changed 
color,  now  a  bright  red.  But  this  is  a  covered 
cup.  How  are  the  seeds  to  get  out  into  the  world? 
Has  the  plant  been  working  so  hard  for  nothing? 

"That  red  cup  looks  very  attractive,"  says  a 
birdie,  and  down  it  pounces  upon  it,  breaking"  the 
cup  and  scattering  some  of  the  seeds,  while  it 


Illustrative  Lessotis  for  rrimai-y  Grades.  207 

eats  what  are  left.  So  the  rose  feeds  the  birds 
and  the  birds  free  the  seeds.  Nature's  children 
are  everywhere  helping"  one  another. 

A  WINTER  STUDY  OP  THE  FOX  SQUIRREL. 

It  is  supposed  that  this  study  will  be  carried 
on  with  classes  of  children  only  who  are  ac- 
quainted with  this  squirrel,  and  to  some  extent^ 
with  its  habits.  A  live  squirrel,  if  possible,  will 
be  brought  into  the  class  whenever  facts  in  regard 
to  structure  need  proof. 

The  following  questions  may  be  asked  for  the 
purpose  of  finding  out  how  much  the  children  al- 
ready know  about  the  animal:  ,  Where  have  you 
seen  fox  squirrels?  How  could  you  tell  them  from 
other  squirrels?  Their  color  was  orange  (or  red) 
and  gray.  What  have  you  seen  them  doing?  Did 
you  ever  visit  at  one  of  their  homes?  Where  was 
it?  How  did  you  reach  it?  How  was  it  furnished? 

We  will  see  if  we  cannot  become  better  ac- 
quainted with  this  lively  little  fellow. 

Have  you  seen  any  this  winter?  Was  it  on  a 
very  cold  or  a  mild  day?  At  what  time  of  day? 
What  was  it  doing?  Watch  closely  and  see  if  you 
can  find  out.  Can  you  ever  tell  that  a  squirrel  has 
been  out,  even  though  no  one  has  seen  it?  How? 
What  kind  of  tracks  does  it  leave  in  the  snow? 
Notice  them  so  carefully  that  you  can  draw  them 
on  the  board.  How  do  they  differ  from  the  rabbit's 
tracks  that  you  have  been  noticing?     If  you  were 


208  Special  Method  in  Science. 

to  follow  these  tracks,  what  mig-ht  you  find?  The 
squirrel's  home.  We  will  not  disturb  him,  but 
sometime  when  the  house  is  empty  we  will  climb 
up  and  peep  in  and  see  if  he  has  a  comfortable 
home.  The  children,  quite  likely,  may  find  the 
nest  in  a  hollow  of  a  tree.  It  is  lined  with  leaves 
and  moss,  perhaps.  How  many  rooms?  Only  one 
— a  bedroom.  Does  one  squirrel  live  here  alone? 
There  is  a  whole  family  of  them,  quite  likely — 
father,  mother,  and  two  or  three  children.  Per- 
haps you  can  find  out  how  they  pack  themselves 
away  in  this  snug"  home. 

Did  the  squirrels  dig-  out  this  hole  in  the  tree? 
Why  do  you  think  they  did  not?  Why  should  they 
choose  such  a  place  as  this?  Did  you  ever  see 
squirrels  out  house  hunting-?  Did  you  ever  see 
them  fitting  up  their  home?  How  did  they  carry 
the  leaves  and  moss?  How  many  of  the  family 
worked?  At  what  time  of  year  was  it?  Do  they 
have  a  door  to  their  house?  How,  then,  do  they 
keep  out  the  wind  and  the  snow?  Is  there  a 
furnace  or  a  stove  in  this  house?  How,  then,  can 
they  keep  warm?  They  wear  very  warm  fur  coats. 
Without  a  squirrel,  the  study  of  this  covering-  can 
be  made  from  a  dried  pelt.  Is  there  more  than 
one  coat?  Notice  the  inner  coat.  It  is  very  soft 
and  compact,  a  dark  drab  next  to  the  skin,  re- 
sembling cotton  batting-.  What  does  this  coat  do 
for  the  squirrel?  Notice  the  outer  coat.  This  coat 
is  coarser  and  not  so  compact.  Do  the  hairs  stand 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  209 

straight  out  from  the  body,  or  do  they  lie  down? 
What  is  the  use  of  this  coat?  Which  coat  gives 
the  color  to  the  animal?  Notice  these  long  hairs 
in  which  the  dark  and  light  alternate.  Which 
color  is  at  the  tip  of  the  hairs? 

These  are  not  the  squirrel's  only  protection 
from  the  cold.  What  beside?  He  carries  with 
him  a  beautiful  fur  cloak — his  tail  or  brush — which 
he  wraps  about  him  when  he  lies  down  to  sleep. 
Call  attention  to  the  richness  of  coloring  in  this 
cloak.  The  upper  part  in  this  specimen  before 
me  is  a  beautiful  combination  of  black  and  orange, 
the  orange  tipping  every  hair — while  the  under 
part  (which  is  the  upper  part  most  of  the  time)  is 
a  light  orange. 

We  have  found  that  the  squirrels  are  very 
comfortable  even  in  cold  weather.  But  are  a  good 
home  and  warm  clothes  all  that  are  necessary  to 
keep  them  alive?  They  need  food.  What  do 
squirrels  eat?  How  can  they  get  these  after  the 
fruit  and  corn  are  gathered  and  the  nuts  which 
remain  on  the  ground  in  the  woods  are  covered 
with  snow?  They  stored  up  food  in  a  pantry  in 
another  hole  in  a  tree,  not  far  from  their  sleeping 
room.  Did  you  ever  see  them  gather  nuts  for  the 
winter?  How  did  they  carry  them  to  their  pantry? 
How  many  worked  at  this?  Did  you  ever  come 
across  their  store  of  nuts?  Did  you  examine  it? 
H?tcl  they  m^4^  a  good  ^^l^ctjpn?  Were  there  any 


210  Special  Method  in  Science. 

wormy  ones  among-  them?  How  do  you  think 
they  discover  that  a  nut  is  not  sound? 

How  do  the  squirrels  spend  most  of  the  time 
in  the  winter?  Why  do  you  think  so?  When  they 
waken  a-nd  are  hungry,  how  do  they  get  their 
meals?  Scamper  off  to  the  pantry.  Do  they  eat 
at  the  pantry,  or  bring  the  nuts  back  to  the  bed- 
room? How  do  they  hold  the  nuts  when  eating? 
How  get  at  the  meat?  What  kind  of  teeth  must 
they  have  to  take  off  the  shell  in  this  way?  Are 
they  like  the  teeth  of  any  other  animal  that  you 
have  studied?  Much  like  the  rabbit's.  Do  they 
chew  their  food?  With  what  teeth?  (If  possible, 
examine  these  teeth.  The  skull  of  the  squirrel 
would  be  of  much  service  here.)  What  is  the 
movement  of  the  jaw?  Is  it  well  for  the  squirrel's 
teeth  that  he  does  not  sleep  all  winter?  What 
would  be  the  harm  if  he  were  to  do  so?  His  teeth 
keep  growing.  He  needs  to  keep  them  worn  off 
at  the  tip  that  they  may  not  become  too  long. 

We  know  a  little  about  the  winter  life  of  this 
pretty  squirrel.  Its  summer  life  is  even  more  in- 
teresting. Let  us  find  out  all  that  we  can  about 
that  next  term.  Let  us  see  how  early  in  the  spring 
it  begins  its  work  and  play.  We  will  find  out,  if 
we  can,  what  its  summer  work  is,  and  what  games 
it  plays. 


Illustrative  Lessons  for-  Pnmary  Grades.  211 

THE  FIRST  THREE  MONTHS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  A  GRAY  SQUIRREL. 

Our  school  children  had  the  rare  opportunity 
in  the  spring  of  '97  of  observing"  three  gray  squir- 
rels from  the  time  of  their  birth. 

We  had  had  the  mother  of  these  babies  for 
about  six  weeks,  when,  on  Monday  morning, 
March  15,  our  janitor  found  in  the  cage  five  little 
squirrels.  Two  died  shortly  after  birth.  The 
little  squirrels  were  perfectly  naked,  not  a  hair 
on  the  whole  body.  The  bodies  of  the  two  largest 
were  two  inches  long,  tail  one  and  one-fourth 
inches,  and  the  legs  three-fourths  of  an  inch. 
They  were  very  dark  red,  with  the  heads  darker 
than  the  body.  The  ears  were  no  larger  than 
radish  or  flax  seeds.  Their  eyes  were  as  large  as 
sweet  peas,  but  were  closed  tight.  Their  toe  nails 
were  black,  with  a  white  tip,  and  were  well  de- 
veloped. The  mother  purred  to  them  harshly. 
The  babies  mewed — a  single  mew  at  a  time;  their 
voices  sounded  like  that  of  kittens.  We  saw  two 
of  them  getting  their  dinner  the  second  morning. 
Their  front  feet  moved  in  a  happy  way  while 
nursing.  We  made  them  a  nest  of  cotton  in  a  box 
when  they  first  came.  Their  mother  tore  up  much 
paper  and  added  to  this  nest. 

When  they  were  a  week  old  their  bodies  had 
become  plumper,  and  they  had  begun  to  bleach 
out.  We  took  one  of  the  little  ones  from  the  cage. 
It  squealed  like  a  little  pig,  such  big  voice  for 
such  a  tiny  creature.  The  mother,  Fanny  was  very 


212  Special  Method  in  Science. 

tame.  We  patted  her  and  handled  her  considera- 
bly when  the  squirrels  were  a  week  old  without 
any  disposition  on  her  part  to  bite. 

When  a  week  and  a  half  old  the  little  ones  be- 
gan to  squeak  like  mice  whenever  things  did  not 
go  to  suit  them  in  their  home.  Their  little  ears 
began  to  stand  out.  The  mother,  when  she  feared 
some  one  was  going  to  h.urt  one  of  her  babies, 
planted  her  front  feet  firmly  on  its  body. 

When  three  weeks  old  the  lids  to  the  eye  had 
become  plainly  differentiated.  The  body  had 
changed  in  color  to  a  dark  gray,  and  gray  hairs 
began  to  show.  They  were  thickest  on  the  head. 
The  head  looked  very  large  in  proportion  to  the 
rest  of  the  body.  The  ears  were  now  standing 
out  stiffly.  Ten  days  previous  to  this  the  squir- 
rels had  been  taken  to  the  home  of  one  of  our 
teachers  to  spend  the  vacation.  Fanny  was  fright- 
ened at  being  moved,  and  when  her  cage  was  set 
down  in  the  new  quarters,  and  the  box  containing 
her  little  ones  was  put  in,  she  grabbed  up  one  lit- 
tle one  at  a  time  and  lapped  it.  She  seemed  to 
be  examining  them  to  see  if  any  harm  had  come 
to  them.  At  the  close  of  the  vacation  they  were 
three  times  as  large,  at  least,  as  at  the  beginning. 

When  three  and  one-half  weeks  old  the  little 
squirrels  had  become  very  active.  Hair  covered 
all  of  the  body  excepting  the  under  part,  and  the 
inner  side  of  the  legs.  These  parts  were  still  per- 
fectly bare.   The  t^il  had  grown  to  be  quite  large. 


Ilhistrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  213 

The  order  in  which  the  hair  appeared  was  this — 
on  head,  on  body,  on  outer  part  of  thigh,  on  outer 
part  of  leg".  The  mother's  call  sounded  like  a 
buzz-saw. 

When  four  and  one-half  weeks  old  the  eye-lids 
were  much  swollen  and  looked  to  be  about  ready 
to  open.  The  head  of  the  squirrel  still  seemed 
out  of  all  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body.  For 
several  days  previous  to  this,  rusty  hairs  had  been 
noticeable  on  their  heads,  mixed  with  the  gray, 
and  now  a  rusty  line  showed  low  down  on  each 
side  of  their  bodies.  While  the  outside  of  the 
mother's  ear  is  white,  theirs  was  gray.  Their 
tails  were  now  becoming  very  hairy.  They  still 
continued  to  do  nothing  but  sleep,  eat,  and  squirm. 
They  were  never  quiet.  For  two  days  previous  to 
this  time  Fanny  had  seemed  very  uneasy.  She 
jumped  out  of  the  nest  and  called  her  young,  but 
they  made  no  move  to  follow  her.  On  this  day 
she  had  many  times  taken  up  one  of  the  babies 
in  her  mouth  and  lapped  and  handled  it,  especially 
the  latter.  We  put  much  cotton  into  the  cage  so 
they  might  not  suffer  were  she  to  take  them  from 
the  box.  When  lifting  one,  she  usually  grasped 
it  by  a  leg,  or  the  skin  on  the  back  of  its  body — 
far  back. 

When  five  weeks  old  the  under  part  of  the 
body  and  inner  part  of  the  leg  were  thickly  cov- 
ered with  white  hairs. 


214  Special  Method  in  Science. 

When  five  weeks  and  one-half  old  we  found 
each  little  squirrel  with  one  eye  partly  open.  With 
the  two  larg-er  squirrels  it  was  the  left  eye,  with 
the  smaller  one  it  was  the  rig"ht  eye.  The  smallest 
squirrel  was  of  a  much  lig"hter  g"ray  than  the  other 
two,  and  had  no  rusty  hairs  in  its  coat. 

On  the  morning"  following"  that  of  the  above 
record  we  looked  with  expectancy  for  wide  open 
eyes,  but  only  the  little  gray  had  an  eye  open,  its 
right  eye,  as  before,  but  this  was  hardly  as  wide 
open  as  on  the  previous  day.  Fanny,  about  this 
time,  began  to  lie  flat  on  her  back  to  suckle  her 
little  ones.  For  several  days  previous  to  this  she 
had  been  burying  her  food  in  the  nest.  On  this 
day  she  took  a  piece  of  cotton  from  her  bed,  and 
with  her  mouth  and  front  paws  gave  it  a  good 
shaking,  then  put  it  back  into  the  nest. 

On  the  day  following  the  above  record,  one  of 
the  large  squirrels  opened  neither  eye  all  day  as 
on  the  previous  day.  The  other  large  one  had 
both  eyes  open,  not  wide,  but  about  half  way. 
The  little  one  had  its  right  eye  open  but  no  far- 
ther than  on  the  previous  day.  The  squirrel  with 
both  eyes  open  drew  itself  up  so  as  to  peep  over 
the  top  of  the  box.  Fanny,  seeing  it,  drew  it 
back  into  the  nest.  By  this  time  we  were  in  the 
habit  of  handling  the  little  ones,  and  taking  them 
out  of  the  cage.  Neither  Fanny  nor  the  little  ones 
objected. 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  215 

When  the  little  squirrels  were  six  weeks  old, 
for  the  first  time,  all  three  had  both  eyes  open. 
They  did  not  move  about  much  on  this  great  day, 
slept  as  usual,  but  were  more  restless.  Fanny 
now  began  sunning  herself,  stretching  out  flat  on 
the  bottom  of  the  cage. 

Two  days  later  than  the  above  record  the  little 
squirrels  took  up  cracked  nuts  in  their  paws  and 
nibbled  them.  The  smallest  squirrel  at  this  time 
was  the  most  active.  On  the  evening  of  this  day 
one  of  the  little  squirrels  kept  getting  out  of  the 
box.  Fanny  was  displeased.  Every  time  it  got 
out  she  would  run  after  it  and,  grasping  it  by  the 
hind  leg,  lift  it  into  the  box.  At  one  time  the 
little  fellow  ran  around  on  the  floor  of  the  cage, 
in  a  very  animated  manner. 

Five  days  later  the  little  ones  had  begun  to 
walk  and  run  about  the  cage  a  great  deal,  and  on 
this  day,  for  the  first  time  they  climbed  up  the 
sides  of  the  wire  cage.  When  walking  or  running 
they  still  seemed  unsteady  on  their  feet,  and  when 
holding  up  a  nut  in  the  paws,  as  they  did  on  rare 
occasions,  their  hind  legs  wabbled.  On  this  day 
and  once  previously,  one  little  fellow  worked  at 
its  mother's  mouth — seemed  to  be  biting  her  teeth. 
We  examined  its  teeth  and  found  them  just 
through.  We  think  it  was  using  its  mother's 
teeth  as  a  baby,  when  teething,  uses  an  ivory 
ring.  The  mother  was  very  patient  and  seemed 
to  regard  the  operation  as  perfectly  proper.    The 


216  Special  Method  in  Science. 

little  teeth  were  very  tiny  and  very  white.  The 
little  squirrels  had  very  sharp  nails.  We  could 
hardly  get  them  off  our  clothing  when  they  had 
been  running  over  us. 

One  day  after  the  above  record  all  three  little 
squirrels  lay  down  in  the  bottom  of  the  cage  to- 
gether to  sleep. 

When  eight  weeks  old  their  tails  were  beauti- 
ful and  they  curled  them  gracefully  over  their 
backs.  They  had  by  this  time  become  very  nim- 
ble. They  would  take  away  Fanny's  nuts  when 
she  was  nibbling  them.  Fanny  stored  away  in  the 
box  large  quantities  of  nuts,  never  putting  two  in 
the  same  spot.  She  covered  them  by  scratching 
anything  over  them  that  happened  to  be  handy, 
even  though  it  were  one  of  the  little  squirrels. 

Two  days  later  one  squirrel  would  lie  on  its 
back,  kick  up  its  legs,  and  grab  another  squirrel, 
when  a  skirmish  would  follow.  They  continued 
to  steal  the  nuts  from  Fanny's  mouth.  They  were 
now  beginning  to  eat  nuts,  kernels  of  corn,  and 
clover.  One  lay  down  and  gnawed  a  kernel  of 
corn  as  a  dog  gnaws  a  bone. 

When  nine  and  a  half  weeks  old  the  little  ones 
teased  Fanny  when  eating  so  much  that  she  hung 
by  her  toes  from  the  side  of  the  cage  near  the  top, 
to  crack  nuts.  The  tails  of  the  babies  were  now 
longer  than  their  bodies  and  very  beautiful.  The 
little  ones  were  becoming  hearty  eaters,  their  fa- 
vorite food  being  hickory  nuts.     On  this  day  I 


Illustrative  Lessoiis  for  Primary  Grades.  217 

wore  a  snowball.  Fanny  came  to  the  side  of  the 
cag-e  and  nibbled  at  the  snowball.  When  I  took 
it  off  and  gave  to  her  she  ate  more  than  half  of  it. 

One  day  later  than  the  above  Fanny  and  her 
babies  quarreled.  She  was  tired  of  having  them 
boss  her  about,  and  refused  to  submit. 

When  ten  and  a  half  weeks  old  Fanny  still 
washed  her  babies,  lapping  them  with  her  tong-ue. 
She  still  suckled  them,  though  a  few  times  she 
had  resisted  their  demands  for  food.  They  now 
looked  to  be  almost  as  larg-e  as  the  mother.  The 
smallest  one  was  a  downright  wicked  tease.  It 
made  a  practice  of  skipping"  up  behind  one  of  the 
others  and  biting^  it,  stealing-  the  food  of  the 
others,  biting-  them  when  they  wished  to  eat,  and 
the  like.  Finally  we  had  to  take  the  little  hector 
out  of  the  cage  and  give  him  a  cage  to  himself. 

About  a  week  after  we  took  the  little  squirrel 
from  the  cage  one  of  those  remaining  in  the  cage 
died.  We  knew  no  cause  for  its  death.  We  took 
the  other  little  squirrel  from  the  mother,  as  she 
had  been  taking  its  choice  morsels  of  food  from 
it.  We  kept  it  out  only  three  days  as  it  grieved 
greatly  for  its  mother.  The  evening  after  we  put  it 
back  it  had  a  hard  spasm.  Fearing  that  the  room 
was  too  warm  and  sunny  we  sent  all  to  the  base- 
ment in  another  building.  Here  they  were  given 
much  freedom  and  thrived  well.  This  was  near 
the  end  of  the  term.  The  children  had  watched 
closely  and  noted  with  the  greatest  interest  ail 


218  Special  Method  in  Science. 

the  changes  here  recorded,  and  they  loved  the 
little  squirrels  and  Fanny  very  much.  They  re- 
lated to  the  teacher  in  their  Nature  Study  class 
what  they  had  observed.  If  any  difference  of 
opinion  existed  it  was  settled  by  further  investi- 
gation. 

OUR  HOUSE,  JIM. 

The  children  learn  a  great  deal  by  watching- 
an  animal  or  plant  kept  in  the  school  room.  The 
following  are  some  observations  made  of  our 
mouse,  Jim. 

Jim  was  not  a  handsome  mouse.  He  was  gray 
with  the  under  parts  somewhat  lighter.  Our  jani- 
tor caught  him  for  us  in  a  trap — one  of  the  kind 
that  preserves  the  specimen  alive  and  unmuti- 
lated.  Before  he  arrived  we  had  made  ready  for 
him  a  cage.  It  was  made  of  woven  wire,  and  was 
about  a  foot  square.  It  had  a  wooden  bottom, 
which  the  mouse  never  saw  fit  to  gnaw  through. 
There  was  a  wire  handle  at  the  top,  and  a  wire 
door  in  one  side,  near  the  bottom.  This  door  was 
of  such  a  size  that  the  top  of  a  glass  fruit  jar  ex- 
actly fitted  into  it.  Its  cost  was  fifty  cents.  A 
tinner  made  it  for  us. 

As  often  as  the  cage  needed  cleaning,  Jim  was 
tempted  by  some  dainty,  to  go  into  a  two-quart 
jar  whose  mouth  had  been  put  into  the  door  of 
the  cage.  Once  in  there,  the  top  of  the  jar  was 
put  on  lightly,  and  the  cage  was  cleaned.  Jim, 
almost   without   fail,  gave    himself   a    thorough 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  219 

cleaning  while  in  this  jar.  Standing-  on  his  hind 
paws  he  lapped  his  little  pink  hands,  and  then 
proceeded  much  as  a  cat  does,  to  clean  very  care- 
fully all  parts  of  his  body,  his  hands  returning"  to 
his  mouth  frequently  for  a  fresh  supply  of  cleans- 
ing fluid. 

In  the  meantime  the  cage  had  been  washed  out 
thoroughly  and  dried,  and  a  double  piece  of  paper 
a  foot  wide  but  several  inches  longer  was  put  into 
the  cage,  so  that  one  side  folded  over,  forming  a 
roof  for  a  retiring  room.  Jim  had  asked  for  this 
room  in  this  way:  At  first  we  cut  the  paper  a 
foot  square.  Jim  would  invariably  push  up  one 
side  of  the  paper  and  go  under  it  when  he  wished 
to  sleep  or  meditate.  By  lengthening  the  paper 
we  saved  him  this  trouble.  He  had  not  ceased  to 
be  wary  although  he  knew  us  well,  for  he  invari- 
ably cut  out  a  little  window  in  this  private  office 
of  his,  and  slept  with  his  head  in  such  a  position 
that  he  could  look  out  of  this  window  should  he 
be  disturbed. 

How  happy  he  was  to  get  back  into  his  clean 
cage.  He  would  run  up  one  side,  throw  his  head 
far  back,  and  turn  a  somersault  landing  on  his 
feet  at  the  bottom  of  the  cage.  This  was  his  fa- 
vorite pastime.  His  movements  were  so  rapid, 
when  he  was  fairly  started  that  it  was  impossible 
to  tell  how  he  moved. 

The  children  at  school  were  glad  to  furnish 
food  to  the  little  fellow  for  the  pleasure  of  seeing 


220  Special  Method  in  Science. 

him  eat.  His  mouth  was  hid  from  sight.  If  a 
grain  of  field  corn  was  given  him,  he  picked  it  up 
in  his  front  paws,  standing  on  his  hind  legs,  ex- 
actly as  does  a  squirrel  when  eating  a  nut.  He 
first  pulled  off  with  his  teeth  the  thin  husk  on  the 
outside  of  the  grain,  dropped  it,  and  beginning  at 
the  crown  ate  downward  toward  the  heart  for 
some  distance,  then  he  turned  it  and  ate  toward 
the  heart  from  the  opposite  side,  until  one  part 
dropped.  The  remaining  part  he  ate  from  the 
outside  inward,  nibbling  little  bites,  or  sometimes 
taking  larger  bites  and  chewing  them.  When  the 
one  part  was  eaten,  he  scurried  around,  hunting 
the  other  portion,  which  he  ate  in  the  same  way. 
If  he  had  an  abundance  of  corn  he  would  eat  the 
crown  out  of  several  kernels,  instead  of  eating  an 
entire  one.  When  a  kernel  of  rice  popcorn  was 
given  him,  instead  of  beginning  at  the  crown  to 
nibble,  (the  crown  is  very  hard)  he  began  at  the 
softer  base. 

We  expected  him  to  go  into  raptures  over  his 
first  bit  of  cheese,  this  being  considered  a  mouse's 
great  luxury,  but  he  disappointed  us.  He  nibbled 
a  little  from  it  occasionally,  but  in  a  half-hearted 
way. 

He  was  very  fond  of  cake.  One  could  almost 
hear  him  smack  his  jaws  in  satisfaction  when  he 
got  hold  of  a  piece.  He  would  hold  it  up  in  his 
paws,  if  not  too  heavy,  and  eat  it  in  much  the 
same  way  that  he  ate  the  corn.    If  the  piece  were 


Illustrative  Lessons  for  Primary  Grades.  221 

too  large  he  put  his  head  down  to  it,  using  his 
paws  in  turning  it.  His  hands  seemed  as  neces- 
sary to  him,  for  feeding  himself,  as  do  ours.  We 
never  saw  him  eat  anything  without  bringing 
them  into  use  to  hold  the  food  in  a  good  position 
for  nibbling. 

We  watered  Jim  in  a  little  glass  salt-cellar. 
He  cared  for  water  at  least  once  a  day.  Sometimes 
he  would  drink  oftener.  When  the  water  w^as  put 
into  the  cage  he  would  run  to  it,  put  his  two  front 
feet  on  the  side  of  the  dish  and  lap  up  rapidly 
from  the  center.  Occasionally  we  gave  him  milk. 
This  he  would  sometimes  lap  from  the  center,  at 
other  times  from  the  edge  of  the  dish  only 

His  hand  was  very  delicate.  There  were  four 
slender  fingers  on  a  level,  and  a  thumb  higher  up, 
as  in  our  own  hand.  The  foot  had  but  four  toes, 
the  use  of  the  toes  being  less  varied  than  that  of 
the  fingers. 

While  we  do  not  doubt  that  that  prominent 
nose  served  a  good  purpose,  we  were  not  able  to 
demonstrate,  to  our  satisfaction,  that  he  has  the 
keen  scent  accorded  him  by  some. 

His  little  black  eyes  seemed  to  see  in  every 
direction  at  once,  and  his  thin  papery  ears  caught 
the  slightest  sound.  His  whole  attitude  was  one 
of  alertness.  A  cat  that  could  surprise  one  such 
little  fellow  must  be  very  quick-witted  as  well  as 
quick-motioned, 


222  Special  Method  in  Science. 

So  far  as  we  could  discover  his  tail  was  a  use- 
less appendage — not  even  ornamental  we  should 
say,  but  Jim  seemed  very  proud  of  it.  He  washed 
it  with  great  care,  and  laid  it  out  in  a  graceful 
curve,  when  resting.  We  think  he  would  look 
quite  inartistic,  however,  without  this  three  inch 
measure,  and  were  it  covered  with  hair,  forming 
a  beautiful  brush  like  that  of  the  squirrel,  proba- 
bly not  a  mouse  would  be  making  history  to-day. 


Topics  for  Third  Grade.  223 


TOPICS  rOR  THIRD  GRADE. 


The  topics  selected  for  third  grade  have  con 
siderable  variety  and  cannot  be  arrang"ed  in  any 
close  scientific  sequence.  We  are  careful  to  select 
home  topics  which  offer  abundant  opportunity  for 
close  examination.  In  some  cases  the  observations 
should  be  continuous  during  several  weeks.  It 
may  be  well  to  observe  and  collect  specimens  for 
some  time  before  regular  class  work  in  a  topic  be- 
g"ins.  Outdoor  observations  and  excursions  to  the 
campus,  neig"hboring"  fields  and  groves,  and  the 
collecting"  of  specimens  by  the  children  in  their 
still  wider  range  of  home  experiences,  will  help 
to  render  the  work  interesting  and  experimental. 

The  topics  chosen  are  typical,  and  simple  groups 
observed  in  this  grade,  in  connection  with  the 
studies  in  still  earlier  years,  will  expand  and  be- 
come more  definite  in  later  studies.  In  this  grade 
we  are  still  absorbed  in  the  study  of  particular 
objects  in  nature  with  all  their  concrete  detail 
and  interesting  discovery.  We  are  collecting 
much  material  for  later  classification  and  scientific 
ordering.  It  is  necessary  to  make  constant  use  of 
their  previous  experiences  and  at  the  same  time 


224  Special  Method  in  Science. 

to  clarify  and  enlarge  them  with  new  and  ample 
material.  Every  important  topic  should  be  deeply 
rooted  in  the  child's  home  environment  and  should 
be  brought  into  close  relation  to  his  other  lessons 
in  geography  and  story,  for  such  associations  are 
natural  and  appropriate.  The  type  study  in  each 
case  is  more  fully  treated  than  those  other  plants 
and  animals  with  which  it  is  compared  for  pur- 
poses of  grouping  or  classification.  The  formal, 
superficial  description  of  objects  is  not  our  pur- 
pose, but  such  an  inquiry  into  the  habits,  needs, 
organs,  and  surroundings  as  will  bring  out  the  life 
processes,  and  aid  in  the  detection  of  causes  and 
adaptations  in  nature. 

The  books  and  references  given  in  connection 
with  each  topic  are  designed  to  be  of  help  to 
teachers.  They  furnish  a  good  deal  of  sugges- 
tion and  knowledge  of  the  facts.  But  the 
teacher  must  not  rely  upon  book  knowledge  as 
the  chief  aid.  The  knowledge  gained  from  books 
will  help  the  teacher  to  become  much  more 
acute  in  hunting  out  the  problems  involved  in  the 
object  of  study.  If  the  teacher  can  only  learn  to 
be  an  investigator  and  thinker,  the  problems  will 
spring  up  in  his  own  mind  as  fast  as  he  collects 
knowledge  by  reading  and  observation.  But  na- 
ture study  requires  much  thoughtfulness,  inge- 
nuity, and  a  certain  amount  of  originality  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher.  Some  of  the  most  desirable 
books  ?ire  too  expensive  for  most  te^c^b^r?  to  buy, 


Topics  for  Third  Grade.  .  225 

A  few  of  the  less  expensive  and  best  books  for 
this  and  the  following"  grade  are  given  in  a  spe- 
cial list,  With  the  names  of  the  publishers,  as 
follows: 

"A  Few  Familiar  Flowers,''  by  Miss  Merely.   Ginn  &  Co. 

"Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoology."    Needham.     Ameri- 
can Book  Co. 

''Outdoor  Studies."    Needham.     American  Book  Co 

"Nature  Study."    Payne.     E.  L.  Kellog-g-  &  Co. 

"A  First  Book  in  Geolog-y."    Shaler.   D.  C.  Heath  &  Co 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."     Lange.      The  Macmil- 
lan  Co. 

"The  Story  of  the  Solar  System. "  Chambers.  D.  Apple 
ton  &  Co. 

"How  to  Study  Plants."    Wood.     American  Book  Co. 

"Botany  For  Young  People."  Gray.  American  Book  Co. 

"A  Reader  in  Botany,"  Part  I.     Newell.     Ginn  &  Co. 

"Longmans'   Object    Lessons."      Salmon.      Longmans, 
Green  &  Co. 

"The  Plant  World."    Vincent.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

"School  Zoology."    Burnet.     American  Book  Co 

"Applied  Physiology  for  Intermediate  Grade."    Over- 
ton.    American  Book  Co. 

"How  to  Keep  Well."    Blaisdell.     Ginn  &  Co. 

"The  Story  of  a  Piece  of  Coal."    Martin.     D.  Appleton 
&Co. 

"Town  Geology."    Kingsley.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

"Coal  and  Coal  Mines."      Green.       Houghton,  Mifflin 
&Co. 

"Trees  of  the  Northern  U.  S."  Apgar.  American  Book 
Co. 

"Guides  for  Science  Teaching."    Numbers  I,  IL   HI, 
VIII      D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

"Our  Friends  the  Birds."    Parker.    A.  Flanagan. 


226  Special  Method  in  Science. 

''Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools."  Mrs.  L.  L. 
Wilson.     The  Macmillan  Co. 

"Familiar  Talks  on  Astronomy,"  by  Wm.  H.  Parker. 
A  C.  McClurg-  &  Co. 

"Starland,"  by  Robert  S.  Ball.     Ginn  &  Co. 

"The  World  of  Matter."  H.  H.  Ballard.  D.  C.  Heath 
«&Co. 

"The  Earth  and  Its  Story."  A.  Heilprin.  Silver,  Bur- 
dett  &  Co. 

FALL  TERn. 
THE  CORN  PLANT. 

In  the  fall  (September)  study  of  the  full-grown 
plant,  stalk,  leaves,  ears,  tassel,  roots,  g-rowth 
during-  the  season. 

Study  also  the  broom-corn,  sorghum,  g-rasses 
such  as  timothy,  blue  grass;  the  grains,  wheat, 
rye,  barley,  oats,  rice,  and  millet. 

References.     See  full  treatment  below. 

"How  to  Study  Plants."    Wood.     pp.  271-280. 

"How  Plants  Grow."    Gray.     pp.  20-21. 

"Grasses,  The  Plant  World."    Vincent,     pp.  95-102. 

"Lessons  in  Elementary  Science."    Salmon,     pp.  69-73. 

"Nature  Study  Reader,  Harold's  Rambles."  pp.  51-61. 
Also  "Stories  Mother  Nature  Told  Her  Children."  An- 
drews,    pp.  35-41. 

THE  SUNFLOWER. 

September  is  a  good  month  for  its  study.  It  is 
found  abundantly  in  the  gardens  not  far  from  the 
school  house,  allowing  short  excursions  to  exam- 
ine its  blossoms,  seeds,  growth  of  stalk,  scatter- 


Topics  for  Third  Grade.  227 

ing"  of  seeds.  Compare  it  in  size  and  growth  with 
the  corn  plant.  Examine  also  and  compare  with 
the  sunflower  the  wild  sunflower,  the  dandelion,  the 
thistle,  the  asters,  the  golden  rod. 

Reference.     See  full  treatment  below. 

"How  to  Study  Plants."    Wood.     pp.  143-147. 

"How  Plants  Grow."    Gray.     pp.  164-166. 

See  the  fuller  treatment  of  this  plant  given  below. 

Also  "Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Lange.     pp.  50-57. 

"Plants  and  Their  Children."    Dana.     pp.  248-255. 

THE  CATALPA  AND  HONEY  LOCUST, 

Visit  the  trees  on  the  roadside  and  campus. 
Examine  and  compare  the  pods.  Notice  also  the 
leaves,  trunk,  and  structure  of  the  bark.  The  com- 
mon locust  tree  also  should  be  examined  and  com- 
pared with  the  honey  locust.  Compare  the  pods 
and  seeds  of  the  locust  and  catalpa. 

Consult,  for  catalpa: 

"Familiar  Trees  and  Their  Leaves."  pp.  185-187;  for 
the  locust,  pp.  213-218. 

"Apg"ar's  Trees  of  the  Northern  United  States."  pp. 
93-95;  also  pp.  127-128. 

"How  to  Study  Plants."    Wood.     pp.  121-123. 

THE  ORASSHOPPER  OR  LOCUST. 

The  fall,  especially  September,  is  a  g-ood  time 
to  study  the  g-rasshopper.  The  children  will 
readily  bring  in  specimens,  putting  green  leaves 
and  grasses  in  the  can  or  box  with  the  live  speci- 
mens. An  excursion  to  the  campus  to  watch  them 
leap  and  fly,  to  notice  their  mouths,  feet,  legs,  and 


228  Special  Method  in  Science, 

wings  in  action  should  precede.  What  do  they 
eat?  How  do  tbey  escape  their  enemies?  Watch 
them  in  the  process  of  moulting.  Do  they  grow 
in  size?  What  is  the  difference  between  young 
and  old?  The  story  of  how  the  eggs  are  deposited 
may  be  told  the  children.  Tell  the  story  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Locust  and  its  ravages. 

Consult  "Handbook  of  Nature  Study."  Lange.  pp. 
213-216. 

"Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoolog-y.''   Needham.   pp.  48-57. 

"Nature  Study."   Payne,    pp.  68-70. 

Hyatt  &  Arms.     "Insecta."    pp.  108-109. 

"Elementary  Biology."    pp.  34-41.     Boyer. 

"Insect  Life,"  by  Comstock,  pp  9-21,  This  has  an  ex- 
cellent study  of  the  locust  or  short-horned  grasshopper. 

THE  APPLE. 

Examination  of  the  fruit.  Bring  in  several 
kinds  of  apples.  How  many  parts  in  the  seed  pod 
or  core  of  the  apple? 

What  did  the  apple  grow  from?  Can  you  see 
any  traces  of  the  blossom?  Get  the  crab-apple, 
Siberian  crab.  Have  they  the  same  arrangement 
of  seeds,  pods,  etc.  ? 

What  apples  are  kept  late  into  the  winter  and 
why?  Plant  some  of  the  seeds  and  raise  the 
plants.  When  at  the  nursery  (near  the  school)  in 
winter  notice  the  process  of  grafting. 

"How  to  Study  Plants."    Wood.     pp.  107-112. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."     Lang-e.     pp.  4-8. 

"Insect  Life."    Comstock.     pp.  168-172, 


Topics  for  Third  Grade.  2^d 

"One  Hundred  Lessons  in  Nature  Study."  Payne,  pp. 
14-15. 

"One  Hundred  Lessons  in  Nature  Study."  Payne,  pp. 
20-22. 

"Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools."  Wilson,  pp. 
241-243. 

THE  NASTURTIUM. 

See  Miss  Margaret  Morley's  treatment  of  "The 
Nasturtium,"  in  "A  Few  Familiar  Flowers,"  pp. 
107-151.  A  very  full  and  helpful  study  for  teach- 
ers. Children  should  g-o  out  for  study  of  the 
growing:  plant  and  flowers. 

"Botany  Reader."    Newell.     Part  I,  pp.  115-133. 

THE  SQUIRREL. 

The  red  or  gray  squirrel  may  be  studied  in  a 
cage  or  at  freedom,  if' tame  enough. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Lang-e.     pp.  171-174. 
"Animal  Life  in  Sea  and  on  Land."  Cooper,  pp.  390-394. 
"Inmates  of  My  House  and  Garden."     Brightwen.     pp. 
53-56. 

FOODS  AND  TEETH. 

Kinds  of  foods  and  what  they  are  made  from. 
Milk,  bread,  butter,  fruits,  sweets,  cheese,  meat, 
fish,  game.  How  to  eat  and  drink  in  moderation. 
Ice  water,  chewing  the  food,  use  and  care  of  the 
teeth. 

See  "Applied  Physiologry"    Overton,     pp.  26-34. 
"How  to  Keep  Well."    Blaisdell.     pp.  46-55. 
"Physiology  for  Young  People."    pp.  1-12. 


230  Special  Method  in  Science. 

THE  5UN  AND  MOON. 

Notice  the  time  of  rising"  and  setting"  of  the 
sun,  the  length  of  the  day  and  nig"ht,  the  chang^es 
from  week  to  week.  The  sun  as  the  source  of 
heat.  Trace  the  moon  throug"h  its  changes  from 
new  moon  to  new  moon.  Think  out  its  movements. 
The  sun's  heat  at  different  times  of  the  day  and 
at  different  seasons.  Keep  a  record  of  the  moon's 
changes  for  a  month.  Explain  the  reflected  light 
of  the  moon. 

See  "Starland."    Ball.     Chapters  I  and  II. 
"Familiar  Talks  on  Astronomy."    Parker.     Talks  II, 
III,  and  IV. 

"Sunshine."    Johnson.     Chapters  I  and  II. 

COLD  AND  FROST. 

Notice  the  changes  from  fall  to  winter.  Use 
the  registrations  of  the  thermometer  from  day  to 
day.  Notice  the  effect  of  frost  on  different  vege- 
tables and  trees,  weeds,  etc.  Examine  the  frost 
itself  and  its  crystals.  Report  how  ice  is  formed 
in  a  pail  when  set  out  in  the  cold.  How  do  dogs, 
cats,  sheep,  and  other  animals  prepare  for  winter? 
Change  of  clothing  with  change  of  season.  Wet 
clothing,  wet  stockings,  catching  cold,  etc.  The 
warmth  of  woolens. 

"World  of  Matter. ^'    Ballard,     Chapters  I,  II,  and  III. 

"Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools."  Wilson,  pp. 
154-156. 


Topics  for  Third  Grade.  "     231 

WINTER  TERn. 
THE  HOUSE  CAT. 

A  good  type  of  the  wild  animals  of  the  cat 
family.  Padded  feet  and  claws.  Stealthy  pur- 
suit of  prey.  Eyes  and  nocturnal  habits.  Teeth 
and  food.     Fur  and  whiskers. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."     Lang-e.     pp.  97-100. 
'Lessons  on  Elementary  Science."    Salmon,     pp.  54-55. 
pp.  232-233. 

THE  WHITE  PINE. 

How  can  the  white  pine  be  disting-uished  from 
other  pines,  Scotch  pine,  Austrian  pine,  etc?  No- 
tice the  arrangement  of  the  limbs  on  the  trunk, 
the  smooth  bark,  the  cones,  and  how  old  they  are. 
Compare  the  foliage  with  that  of  other  pines  and 
evergreens.  How  can  you  tell  the  age  of  the  white 
pine?  Notice  the  rings  of  wood  in  a  branch  or 
trunk  that  has  been  cut.  Where  does  the  pine 
grow?  Tell  of  the  northern  forests.  Examine 
the  white  pine  wood.  Notice  the  effect  of  snow 
and  sleet  on  the  white  pine  in  winter.  Do  the 
branches  break  off  easily  or  not  and  why?  Lo- 
cate the  white  pines  in  the  neighborhood. 

"How  to  Study  Plants."    Wood.     pp.  214-218. 
"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Langre.     pp.  252-261. 
"Familiar  Trees  and  Their  Leaves."    Matthews,     pp. 
256-272. 

RATS  AND  MICE. 

CJse  live  specimens,  feeding  them  and  watch- 
ing their  actions,  use  of  feet,  teeth,  eyes,  ears. 


232  Special  Method  in  Science. 

If  nests  can  be  had  bring  them  in  and  furnish  ma- 
terial for  nests. 

"Lessons  on  Elementary  Science."    pp.  65-66. 
"Guides  for  Science  Teaching-."  No.  XI.   Hyatt's  Mam- 
mals. 

BATHING 

Keeping-  the  skin  clean.  Effects  upon  health. 
Swimming". 

"Applied  Physiolog-y."    Overton,     pp.  104-113. 

THE  GERANIUM  AND  BEGONIA. 

.  Care  of  house  plants  in  winter.  Visit  a  hot- 
house and  notice  modes  of  propagation.  Kind  of 
soil,  water,  temperature,  sunlight.  Examine  the 
blossoms  and  watch  their  development.  Let  chil- 
dren take  care  of  a  few  plants.  A  visit  to  a  hot- 
house is  also  helpful.  A  very  full  and  excellent 
treatment  of  the  scarlet  geranium  for  teachers  is 
found  in  Margaret  Morley's  "A  Few  Familiar 
Flowers,"  pp.  181-215. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Lange.     pp.  85-89 

THE  ENGLISH  SPARROW. 

•Notice  its  flight,  noises,  habits,  food,  treatment 
of  other  birds.  Where  is  it  chiefly  found?  Where 
are  its  nests? 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Lange      pp.  73-76. 
'Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoolog"y."    Needham.     pp.  211- 
237. 


Topics  for  Third  Grade.  233 

THE  NORTH  STAR  AND  BIG  DIPPER  AND  PLANbTS. 

Notice  the  movement  of  the  dipper.  Compare 
it  with  movements  of  the  sun,  and  moon,  and 
stars.     Observe  the  planets. 

"Nature  Study  for  Elementary  Grades."  Wilson,  pp. 
103-105. 

"The  Story  of  the  Solar  System."  Chambers,  pp.  57-143. 

Review  their  knowledge  of  the  sun  and  moon 
from  observation  and  previous  study.  Locate 
also  any  of  the  familiar  constellations,  as  Orion. 

THE  ORANGE,  LEMON.  AND  BANANA. 

Examine  the  fruits.  Where  do  they  grow? 
Why  not  found  here?  Where  can  we  find  the 
plants  near  home?  In  hot-houses.  Describe  the 
home  climate  and  surroundings  of  each. 

"Nature  Study."    Payne,     p.  15. 

The  Banana.— See  "The  Plant  World."  Vincent,  pp 
74-76. 

"Lessons  on  Elementary  Science."    Salmon,     pp.  77-78 

THE  PIGEON. 

Pigeons  may  be  kept  in  a  large  cage,  or  even 
in  a  basement  or  pigeon  house  near  the  school 
Watch  their  flight.  Feed  them.  It  possible  no 
tice  how  they  care  for  the  young.  Observe  their 
perching,  feet,  eyes,  feathers,  and  wings,  noise 
in  flight,  cooing.  Compare  them  later  with  the 
turtle  dove.  Tell  of  the  carrier  pigeon.  Describe 
the  flocks  of  wild  pigeons.     How  are  the  tame 


234  Special  Method  in  Science. 

pigeons  best  housed  and  fed?     Of  what  use  are 
they? 

"Living-  Creatures  in  Water,  Land,  and  Air"  Comstock. 
pp.  185-187. 

"Animal  Life  in  Sea  and  on  Land."    Cooper.,   pp.  291-4. 

"Bird  Life."     Chapman,     pp.  112-114. 

"Elementary  Biolog-y."    Boyer.     pp.  98-107. 

'Inmates  of  My  House  and  Garden."  Brightwen.  pp. 
93-101. 

LEAD  AS  A  HETAL. 

Bending-,  pounding",  hammering-  of  lead.  Lead 
pipes.  Melt  lead  and  mold  into  bullets.  Where 
does  lead  come  from?  What  is  it  used  for?  Sol- 
der. Compare  its  weight  with  wood,  water,  and 
other  things. 

"Lessons  on  Elementary  Science."     Salmon,    pp.  86-88. 
"The  Earth  and  Its  Story."     Heilprin.     pp.  212-213. 


SPRING  TERH. 
PLANTING  OF  SEEDS  TO  WATCH  GERMINATION. 

First  in  the  school  house  in  boxes  and  later  in 
the  school  garden.  Beans,  corn,  peas,  bulbs,  rad- 
ishes, potato,  apple  seeds,  cherry,  plum.  Later 
in  the  season  transplant  the  violets,  spring  beau- 
ties, blood  root,  and  other  wild  plants,  from  wood 
and  meadow  to  the  school  garden.  Transplant 
the  house  plants  to  the  garden.  Plant,  also,  the 
garden  flowers,  sweet  pea,  nasturtium,  morning 


Topics  for  Third  Grade.  235 

g"lories,  tulips,  poppies,  pansies,  touch-me-nots, 
petunias,  and  watch  the  growth. 

"Plants  and  Their  Children."    pp.  9-69.     Also  pp.  80-89. 
"Guides  for  Science  Teaching-." 
"Concerning-  a  Few  Common  Plants."    Goodale. 
"Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools."    Wilson,     pp. 
133-143. 

PLANTAIN.  DOCK.  WILD  PARSNIP.  AND  DANDELION. 

Study  of  the  roots  of  the  earliest  spring  plants 
and  weeds,  especially  the  perennials.  Notice 
their  leng-th  and  food  store. 

"How  to  Study  Plants."    Wood.     pp.  143-7. 
"Handbook  of  Nature   Study."    Lang-e.    Chapter  vi., 
pp.  58-69. 

Contrast  the  long"  sturdy  roots  of  the  peren- 
nials with  the  roots  of  plants  raised  from  seeds 
early  in  the  spring". 

See  the  treatment  of  spring  plants  below. 


THE  SEEDLINGS  OF  COnWON  TREES. 

The  seedlings  of  one,  two,  and  three  years  will 
be  found  in  early  spring. 

The  tirst  year  seedlings  still  attached  to  the 
winged  seed  may  be  found  in  abundance.     Watch 
the  seedlings  till  they  can  be  determined  as  ma 
pies,  boxelders,  elms,  wild  cherry,  ash,  tulip,  etc. 

How  are  trees  planted  in  the  forest?     What 
trees  in  our  neighborhood  are  raised  in  the  nur- 


^36  Special  Method  in  Science. 

series?     What  trees  grow  wild  and  scatter  their 
own  seed? 

References.  » 

"Guides   for  Science  Teaching-,"  No.  II,  Concerning- 
a  few  Common  Plants.     Goodale.     pp.  11-19. 
"Plants  and  Their  Children."    pp.  85-91. 

Compare  with  germinating"  seeds  and  with  the 
roots  of  plantain,  dandelion  and  wild  parsnip. 

THE  RETURN  OF  THE  SPRING  BIRDS. 

Make  a  bird  calendar. 

Let  each  child  make  a  regular  note  of  birds 
seen  first  by  him.  Robin,  blue-bird,  black-birds. 
Or  even  earlier  than  these  winter  birds,  as  wrens, 
brown  creepers,  shrikes,  hawks,  and  owls.  Later, 
snipes,  doves,  meadow-lark,  etc.  The  main  pur- 
pose is  to  be  on  the  watch  and  to  become  familiar 
with  the  more  common  of  our  native  birds. 

See  "Bird  Life."    Chapman,     pp.  48-61. 

UNDERGROUND  STEHS. 

.  Raspberry,  blackberry,  milk  weed.  Dig  up  the 
roots  so  as  to  show  the  under-ground  stems.  Com- 
pare the  different  under- ground  stems  among 
themselves  and  with  the  running  stem  of  the 
strawberry. 

Later  in  the  season  study  the  radish,  beet, 
onion,  and  compare  with  the  wild  roots  of  dande- 
lion, etc. 


Topics  for  Third  Grade.  237 

The  g"arden  vegetables  can  be  easily  obtained 
for  class-room  use.  They  may  also  be  seen  grow- 
ing in  the  school  garden  and  in  neighboring  gar- 
dens. 

THE  APPLE  TREE  IN  SPRING. 

Buds  and  blossoms.  Watch  the  first  develop- 
ment of  the  little  apples.  Do  insects  visit  the 
blossoms?  Notice  the  colors  and  perfume.  Com- 
pare the  apple  blossoms  with  the  roses.  Notice 
both  wild  and  cultivated  roses  and  compare. 

"Plants  and  their  Children."    Dana.     pp.  9-30. 
"How  to  Study  Plants."    Wood.     pp.  107-112. 
"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."     Lang"e.     pp.  4-8. 
"Insect  Life."    Comstock.     pp.  168-172. 
"One  Hundred  Lessons  in  Nature  Study."   Payne,    pp 
14-15  and  20-22. 

THE  GRAPEVINE. 

Budding  and  blossoming.  The  tendrils  and 
climbing  of  vines.  Early  buds  and  blossoms. 
Forming  of  the  young  fruit.  How  the  vines  are 
propagated.  Compare  it  with  the  climbing  vines. 
Will  it  grow  from  the  sjeeds?  Notice  leaves,  stem, 
bark,  and  compare  with  trees.  Bring  in  speci- 
mens of  wild  grapevine. 

THE  HOLE. 

Its  work  in  yards.  It^ ,  peculiar  home,  food, 
and  organs.  Study  a  live  specimen  if  possible. 
Let  him  bury  himself  in  the  loose  dirt  in  a  pail. 


238  Special  Method  in  Science. 

Feed  him  worms,  grubs,  etc.    Notice  his  fore  leg's, 
teeth,  eyes,  etc. 

"Curious  Homes  and  Their  Tenants."  Beard,  pp.  21-27. 

See  description  below. 

THE  MAPLES  AND  THE  BIRCHES. 

The  growth  of  the  buds,  leaves,  and  fruit 
through  the  spring  season. 

"Familiar  Trees  and  Their  Leaves."  Matthews,  pp. 
81-98. 

"How  to  Study  Plants."    Wood.     pp.  188-192. 

"Familiar  Trees  and  Their  Leaves."  Matthews,  pp. 
192-208. 

"Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools."  Wilson,  pp. 
199-229. 

Handbook  of  Nature  Study."     Lang-e.     pp.  136-153. 

"Insect  Life."    Comstock.     pp.  186-220. 

The  sugar  maple  offers  a  good  specimen  upon 
which  to  study  the  sap — its  character,  circulation, 
functions,  etc.,  as  explained  in  the  botanies. 

See  Gray's  "How  Plants  Grow,"  chapter  III,  pp.  85-90, 
and  other  botanies. 

THE  POTATO  PLANT. 

Seed  potatoes.  Growth  of  vine  during  the 
spring  months.  The  blossom,  little  potatoes. 
The  underground  stems. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Lang-e.     pp.  187-191. 

See  the  full  treatment  below. 

THE  POTATO  BEETLE. 

Notice  them  feeding  upon  the  leaves,  all  sizes, 
from  the  egg  to  maturity.     Observe  changes  in 


Topics  for  Third  Grade.  239 

growth  and  compare  with  other  insects  already 
studied.     Tell  the  story  of  the  potato  beetle. 
See  "Handbook  of  Nature  Study.     Lang-e.     pp.  212-213. 

PLANT-FOODS  AND  THEIR  USES. 

Starch,  sugar. 

Com,  potato,  wheat,  celery. 

Tea  and  coffee. 

Water  as  a  food. 

Effect  of  cooking  upon  some  foods. 

References: 

"How  to  Keep  Well."    Blaisdell.     pp.  46-55. 
"Applied  Physiology."    Overton,     pp.  27-34. 

CORN  PLANT. 

The  corn  plant  is  one  which  is  most  familiar 
and  yet  its  points  of  interest  are  almost  unknown 
to  the  children. 

Where  do  we  find  corn  growing  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  school?  Before  going  to  see  it, 
(or  before  bringing  a  full  stalk  with  the  ear  into 
the  class),  such  questions  as  these  may  be  asked: 

Can  you  draw  from  memory  a  correct  picture 
of  the  full-grown  corn  plant?  How  do  the  leaves 
or  blades  stand  out  on  the  stalk?  Where  are  they 
fastened  and  how?  Are  the  leaves  opposite  or 
otherwise?  Where  is  the  ear  of  corn  attached  and 
how?  How  many  feet  tall  is  a  full  grown  stalk 
of  field  corn?  What  have  you  noticed  as  to  the 
roots  and  where  they  grow  out?  Describe  the 
tassel. 


240  Special  Method  in  Science. 

Now  bring  in  the  full  stalk,  leaves,  corn,  and 
all,  or  visit  the  corn  as  it  stands  in  the  field.  An- 
swer the  questions  definitely  that  we  have  previ 
ously  asked,  e.  g.  The  leaves  grow  alternately, 
first  on  one  side,  then  on  the  opposite,  above,  etc. 
The  lower  part  of  the  leaf  is  a  sheath  encircling 
the  staik  and  fastened  at  the  joint.  The  ear  grows 
up  between  the  stalk  and  the  sheath  or  lower  part 
of  the  leaf.  The  stem  of  the  ear  of  corn  is  thus 
in  the  axil  of  the  leaf.  The  roots  also  spring  out 
from  the  joints,  as  do  the  leaves,  and  from  two  or 
three  of  the  joints.  By  measuring  with  a  yard 
stick  we  find  that  the  whole  plant  is  eight  and  a 
half  feet  tall.  The  tassel  growing  at  the  top 
branches  out  in  several  parts  and  has  a  dust  or 
pollen  in  little  sacks. 

^A  second  set  of  questions  as  follows  may  lead 
to  a  closer  examination  of  the  parts:     Where  the 
large  ear  lies  between  the  leaf  and  stalk  what  is 
noticeable  in  the  shape  of  the  stalk?     A  large 
groove,  or  hollow  place.     Is  this  the  only  ear  on 
the  stalk?    Examine  the  sheath  just  below  on  the 
other  side  of  the  stalk,  and  by  unwrapping  and^^ 
loosening  it  a  second  smaller  ear,  (often  a  very 
small  one  only  two  or  three  inches  long),  is  found   ' 
snugly  wrapped  in  the  axil  of  the  leaf.     Has  this' 
little  ear  rows  of  grain,  silk,  and  leaf-covering? 
Now  go  to  the  next  lower  joint  and  unwrap  the 
sheath!    A  still  smaller  ear  and  its  wrappings  are 
found.   What  is  observed  as  to  the  groove  in  each 


Topics  for  Third  Grade.  ,  241 

case?  It  is  smaller.  Examine  all  the  joints  and 
see  if  an  ear  or  rudiment  of  one  is  found  under  the 
sheath  at  each  joint.  Now  what  do  we  find  as  to 
the  size  of  the  ears  and  grooves  in  which  they  lie 
as  we  g"0  downwards?  How  many  ears  are  thus 
found  on  a  single  stalk?  Where  is  the  largest? 
How  many  ears  of  corn  on  a  single  stalk  are  found 
to  be  valuable?  Are  any  ears  found  on  the  stalk 
above  the  large  ear?     Any  grooves? 

Now  break  off  a  large  ear  with  its  husks  and 
stem.  Strip  off  one  husk  at  a  time  from  the  ear 
and  notice  the  stem.  A  series  of  joints  is  found 
on  this  stem.  What  does  this  remind  us  of?  How 
many  joints  are  found  on  this  short  stem  to  which 
the  ear  is  attached?  As  many  as  there  are  sepa- 
rate husks?  How  many  husks  are  there?  About 
as  many  as  there  are  leaves  on  a  whole  stalk  of 
corn.  Are  the  husks  arranged  on  alternate  sides 
of  the  stem? 

Go  into  a  com  field  when  the  pollen  from  the 
tassel  is  being  scattered.  Examine  the  silks  also 
and  see  the  condition  of  the  ear  of  corn.  Explain 
how  the  pollen  falls  upon  these  delicate  silks  and 
causes  the  grains  of  corn  to  grow. 

Notice  in  the  corn  field  how  the  pollen  is  scat- 
tered over  everything.  Examine  the  tassels  more 
closely.  How  many  large  ears  are  found  (in  dif- 
ferent stalks)  on  a  single  stem?  Are  grains  or 
nubbins  ever  noticed  growing  on  the  tassel?  This 
will  be  of  interest  in  comparison  with  other  plants 
later. 


242  Special  Method  in  Science. 

Let  the  children  try  to  pull  up  a  corn  stalk  as 
it  stands  in  the  ground.  They  will  not  have  suf- 
ficient streng"th.  Let  them  bend  and  twist  it  to 
see  how  strong"  its  hold,  by  means  of  the  roots,  is. 
To  how  many  joints  are  the  roots  attached. 

Cut  through  the  stalk  and  examine  the  fibres 
and  pith.  What  gives  strength  to  the  stalk?  No- 
tice how  thick  and  firm  the  fibres  are  in  the  hard 
rim  of  the  stalk.  Of  what  value  and  use  are  the 
joints?  Show  the  marked  difference  between  a 
cornstalk  and  the  woody  fibre  of  a  tree  or  bush. 
How  long  is  the  com  plant  in  growing?  Does  it 
live  longer  than  one  season?  Does  this  large 
plant,  perhaps  twelve  or  more  feet  tall,  come  from 
a  single  grain  of  corn  in  a  single  season?  How 
many  grains  of  corn  does  this  stalk  produce? 
What  sort  of  soil  does  the  corn  grow  best  in?  Re- 
call your  experiments  in  the  spring  in  watching 
the  germination  of  seeds  in  boxes,  and  in  the 
school  garden.  What  becomes  of  the  seed  corn 
that  is  planted  in  the  ground?  Call  to  mind  the 
different  kinds  of  corn,  as  field  corn,  pop  corn, 
sugar  corn.  What  are  the  differences  in  size  and 
appearance  of  different  sorts? 

Did  you  observe  whether  the  corn  plant  has 
any  enemies,  as  bugs  or  worms  or  grubs.  In  the 
ends  of  the  young  ears  we  often  found  a  grub 
which  was  nested  there  and  eating  the  grains. 
How  did  it  come  to  be  there?  Have  you  known  of 
cornfields  being  damaged  by  insects?   When  does 


Topics  for  Third  Grade.  243 

corn  ^row  most  rapidly  and  why?  What  is  the 
effect  of  very  dry  or  very  wet  weather?  What  is 
com  mostly  useful  for?  (A  brief  account  of  its  use 
for  food  for  animals  and  man.) 

The  class  should  make  quick  sketches  of  the 
corn  plant  on  the  blackboard,  not  so  much  for 
the  drawing-  exercise  as  for  purposes  of  expres- 
sion and  clearer  g-rasp  of  ideas  and  facts.  The 
regular  drawing-  lesson  of  the  class  might  also 
take  up  the  corn  plant  as  a  careful  drawing-  les- 
son. 

If  it  is  convenient,  bring  into  the  class  a  full- 
sized  specimen  of  the  broomcorn  plant.  Examine 
the  plants  closely  and  compare  them  step  by  step 
with  the  corn  plant.  In  many  points  they  will  be 
found  strikingly  similar,  but  in  the  production  of 
seed  a  strong  difference  is  noted.  The  same  sort 
of  study  and  comparison  with  the  sorghum  plant 
may  be  found  practicable. 

The  grasses  may  also  be  collected,  especially 
the  more  common,  as  timothy  grass,  blue  grass,  fox 
tail,  etc.  Oats,  wheat,  and  rye  will  also  offer  inter- 
esting facts  of  structure  and  comparison.  Reeds 
and  wild  rice  or  tall  slough  grass  give  children 
still  further  opportunity  to  observe  the  jointed 
stems  of  which  the  corn  is  a  good  type. 

The  fall  (September)  is  the  best  time  of  the 
school  year  for  the  study  of  the  corn  as  the  plants 
are  then  full  grown  though  still  green  and  devel- 
oping.   In  the  springtime,  however,  the  germina- 


244  Special  Method  in  Science. 

tion  of  corn  and  other  seeds  should  have  been 
studied  previously. 

It  may  be  well  also  to  call  attention  to  the 
corn  plant  as  a  peculiarly  American  plant,  used 
by  the  Indians,  and  known  to  the  children,  per- 
haps, in  the  story  of  Hiawatha.  Later  on  the 
children  will  find  that  it  has  played  a  very  im 
portant  role,  not  only  among-  the  Indians,  but 
among  the  pioneers  of  most  of  the  states. 

It  is  well  to  have  two  or  three  full  specimens 
of  the  object  studied  in  the  class  and  to  encour- 
age the  children  in  observing  the  corn  and  other 
plants  in  the  fields,  to  collect  and  bring  in  speci- 
mens, to  ask  questions. 

THE  SUNFLOWER. 

Visit  a  full-sized  sunflower  in  the  garden. 
Measure  the  height,  size,  and  number  of  the  bios 
soms.  Examine  the  sunflower.  What  is  the  dif- 
ference between  the  flowers  which  have  gone  to 
seed  and  those  which  are  in  full  blossom?  Ex- 
amine the  seeds.  What  is  the  number  of  seeds 
found  in  one  head?  Quarter  a  head  and  count. 
Then  estimate  the  number  of  seeds  in  the  blossom. 
This  plant  has  forty  heads  or  sunflower  blossoms 
containing  altogether  about  1,200  seeds.  If  these 
were  all  planted  in  the  field  the  next  season  how 
many  sunflowers  could  be  raised?  How  do  the 
heads  of  the  sunflower  hang?  As  the  seeds  ripen 
where  do  they  fall?     Examine  the  ground  and  see 


Topics  for  Third  Grade.  245 

if  any  seeds  can  be  found.  How  long"  has  this 
sunflower  been  growing"  upon  this  spot?  Does  it 
grow  from  year  to  year  or  does  it  spring^  up 
from  the  seed  in  the  early  spring"  time?  How 
many  months  has  this  plant  been  g"rowing?  Do 
you  think  that  this  large  plant,  eig"ht  or  ten  feet 
hig"h,  has  grown  in  a  single  season?  How^  large 
is  the  stalk  at  the  bottom?  Is  it  well  rooted  in 
the  ground?  Can  you  mention  any  other  plants 
that  grow  to  the  size  of  the  sunflower  in  a  single 
season?  Examine  more  closely  the  fresh  blossoms 
of  the  sunflower.  Does  it  consist  of  a  separate 
flower  for  each  seed?  How  many  flowers,  there- 
fore, are  found  upon  a  single  head?  Notice  the 
difference  between  the  seeds  on  the  edges  of  the 
head  and  in  the  center.  What  other  plants  have 
you  noticed  producing  many  seeds  in  a  single 
head?  As  for  example,  the  dandelion,  thistle, 
aster?  Where  have  you  noticed  sunflowers  spring- 
ing up  in  the  early  springtime?  Are  they  planted 
like  corn  and  the  grains,  or  do  they  spring  up 
without  planting  like  weeds?  Notice  also,  as  the 
season  advances  and  as  winter  comes  on,  whether 
the  sunflower  is  killed  by  the  frosts  and  what  be- 
comes of  the  seeds,  w^hether  they  remain  on  the 
heads  or  are  scattered  on  the  ground.  If  these 
seeds  lie  in  the  ground  in  the  winter  time  will 
they  be  killed  by  the  frosts?  Of  what  use  are 
these  seeds?  Taste  them  and  see  if  they  are  good 
to  eat.     Do  you  know  any  animals  or  birds  that 


246  Special  Method  in  Science. 

use  them  for  food?  Feed  some  of  them  to  the 
chickens,  and  pigeons,  and  turkeys,  and  ducks. 
Possibly  squirrels  would  eat  them.  Cut  through 
the  stalk  and  examine  the  inner  parts  of  the 
stalk.  Can  you  notice  how  the  sunflower  stalk 
grows?  How  does  it  differ  from  the  trees  and 
woody  shrubs?  Save  up  some  of  the  sunflower 
seeds  and  plant  them  in  boxes  and  see  if  they  will 
grow.  Examine  a  number  of  sunflower  plants  and 
see  what  number  of  blossoms  is  upon  different 
ones,  size  of  blossoms  and  number  of  seeds.  Where 
does  the  sunflower  grow  largest  and  best?  Ex- 
amine some  of  the  wild  flowers  which  resemble 
the  sunflower,  and  see  if  they  are  similar  and  in 
what  points  they  resemble  the  sunflower.  It  .will 
be  well,  also,  for  the  children  to  draw  the  full 
sunflower  plant  on  the  blackboard  or  on  paper 
representing  the  branches  and  drooping  heads. 
Why  do  the  heads  droop  so  much  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  season? 

THE  COnnON  POTATO. 

Secure  a  potato  plant  in  June,  about  the  time 
when  it  flowers  out  and  when  the  little  potatoes 
are  setting.  Dig  up  the  plant  with  roots  and 
young  potatoes  and  present  it  in  the  school  as  a 
complete  specimen.  Before  presenting  the  plant 
to  the  children  it  may  be  well  to  ask  them  to  de- 
scribe it  from  memory  and  then  later  bring  in  the 
plant  with  its  blossoms,  stem,  and  roots  for  more 


Topics  for  Third  Grade.  247 

accurate  examination.  When  were  the  potatoes 
planted  in  the  g-round?  Were  they  raised  from  the 
seed  or  from  something"  else?  Describe  the  plant- 
ing". Describe,  also,  the  growth  of  the  young- 
plants  until  they  blossom  out.  In  examining  roots 
and  young  potatoes  notice  whether  they  are  alike, 
whether  the  stems  upon  which  the  young  pota- 
toes grow  are  roots.  Take  off  all  the  dirt  and 
examine  the  stems  very  closely  and  note  carefully 
the  difference  between  the  roots  and  the  under- 
ground stem.  Will  these  little  potatoes  grow  in 
the  ground  if  they  are  separated  from  the  root? 
Where  does  the  little  potato  get  its  food  by  which 
it  grows  larger?  What  is  the  business  of  the  stem 
and  leaves  of  the  potato  vine  during  the  summer 
time?  Where  does  the  plant  obtain  food  with 
which  it  supplies  the  growing  potatoes?  What 
sort  of  soil  is  best  for  their  growth?  What  care 
needs  to  be  taken  of  the  plant?  What  if  weeds 
and  grass  grow  up  in  the  potato  hill?  Examine 
more  closely  the  stem  of  the  potato  vine  and 
leaves.  Notice  shape  and  color.  As  soon  as  the 
potatoes  grow  up  to  full  size  what  becomes  of  the 
vine?  It  may  be  said  that  the  potato  plant,  in- 
cluding roots,  stem,  and  leaves,  spends  the  whole 
summer  in  collecting  food  and  storing  it  away  in 
the  potatoes,  and  when  this  work  is  done  the  vine 
dies  and  the  potatoes  remain  in  the  earth.  If 
these  potatoes  are  left  in  the  ground  during  the 
winter,  will  they  be  destroyed  or  will  they  send 


248  Special  Method  in  Science. 

up  new  vines  in  the  spring-?  Examine  the  potato 
blossom  more  closely  and  see  if  it  has  the  same 
parts  as  other  blossoms— sepals,  petals,  pistil, 
stamens.  Do  any  of  the  blossoms  develop  into 
seeds  so  that  they  may  be  planted  in  the  spring- 
and  new  potatoes  raised  from  them?  Examine 
the  larg-e  potato  and  describe  the  eyes  and  tell 
what  they  are  for. 

Do  you  know  of  any  other  plants  that  produce 
fruit  like  the  potato  g-rowing-  under  g-round?  Do 
you  find  also  that  they  have  eyes  from  which  new 
plants  g-row?  What  kind  of  food  do  the  potatoes 
contain  that  makes  them  valuable  to  man?  Ex- 
amine the  sweet  potato  and  compare  it  somewhat 
closely  with  the  common  potato. 

Does  the  potato  vine  have  any  enemies  that 
destroy  it  or  prevent  its  g-rowth?  Call  to  mind 
the  potato  bug-s  and  how  they  destroy  the  plants. 
Give  a  short  account  of  the  history  of  the  potato 
plant.     How  far  north  will  it  g-row? 

THE  HOUSE  CAT. 

Why  is  it  that  the  house  cat  can  see  in  the 
nig-ht  or  in  dark  places?  What  have  you  noticed 
as  peculiar  in  the  eyes  of  the  cat?  Is  there  any 
difference  in  the  cat's  eyes  at  noon  time  or  in 
bright  weather  and  in  the  dark  or  dark  places? 
Examine  the  cat's  eyes  at  the  window  where  there 
Is  plenty  of  lig-ht  and  after  she  has  been  in  a  dark 
place,  in  the  closet,  for  awhile.     What  difference 


Topics  for  Third  Grade.  249 

is  noted?  Is  it  possible  to  explain  from  this  why 
a  cat  can  see  better  at  night  than  we  can?  Can 
the  cat  see  in  a  place  where  there  is  no  light, 
where  it  is  perfectly  dark?  Why  does  the  cat  re- 
main so  quiet  and  sleep  so  much  in  the  day  time? 
Why  are  they  so  active  and  so  wide  awake  at 
night? 

If  a  cat  is  pursued  by  a  dog  how  does  she  es- 
cape? How  is  she  able  to  climb  so  quickly  up 
a  tree?  Examine  her  feet  and  claws.  Why  can 
she  climb  so  easily?  Notice  the  cat  and  her  feet. 
What  advantage  have  they?  What  difference  be 
tween  the  claws  on  the  feet  of  a  dog  and  those  of 
the  cat?  What  kind  of  prey  does  the  cat  seek  for? 
Explain  how  the  claws  and  the  pads  on  her  feet 
are  helpful  to  her  in  catching  her  prey.  How  does 
the  cat  sharpen  her  claws?  Of  what  advantage 
are  the  whiskers  to  the  cat  as  she  moves  about? 
Do  they  help  her  in  any  way,  and  how?  Why  has 
she  such  soft  fur  and  of  what  advantage  is  it?  As 
the  cat  moves  rapidly  does  she  run  or  leap,  and 
why?  As  she  tries  to  get  away  from  the  dog  does 
she  run  like  the  dog  or  does  she  spring?  Examine 
her  muscles  and  her  bones  and  see  if  you  can  tell 
why  she  springs  rather  than  runs.  If  a  cat  were 
wild  in  the  woods  where  would  she  live  and  make 
her  home?  And  what  advantage  would  she  hav^e 
for  catching  her  prey?  How  does  the  cat  watch 
and  catch  her  prey  and  what  sort  of  animals  does 
she  watch  for?    Examine  her  teeth.     What  sort 


250  Special  Method  in  Science. 

of  teeth  has  she  and  of  what  advantage  are  they? 
If  the  cat  were  as  large  as  a  Newfoundland  dog- 
would  it  be  safe  to  have  her  about?  Have  you 
seen  cats  catching  birds?  If  you  have  a  pet  bird 
in  the  house  is  it  safe  to  keep  a  cat?  What  effect 
will  the  cats  have  upon  the  birds  in  the  neighbor- 
hood? Study  the  pictures  and  life  of  the  wild- 
cat, panther,  and  leopard.  The  study  of  the  cat 
is  indispensable  as  a  preparation  for  the  study  of 
wild  animals  of  the  cat  tribe. 

SPRING  PLANTS. 

In  the  early  springtime,  when  the  first  green 
of  plants  begins  to  show  itself,  the  children  will 
be  interested  in  digging  down  into  the  ground 
by  the  roadside  or  in  pastures  to  find  the  root- 
stalks  from  which  the  earliest  plants  spring;  as, 
for  example,  the  plantain,  dandelion,  wild  par- 
snip, dock,  rhubarb,  etc.  They  will  be  surprised 
to  find  what  a  strong  root,  well  supplied  with  food 
for  the  little  plant,  lies  there  in  the  ground  sup- 
porting the  growth  of  the  earliest  spring  shoots. 
It  will  be  worth  the  while  to  take  the  trouble  to 
dig  down  into  the  ground  a  foot  or  more  to  find 
the  full  length  of  some  of  these  root-stalks  like  the 
dandelion  and  wild  parsnip.  What  effect  has  the 
cold  and  frost  of  winter  upon  these  food-stalks? 
Why  do  they  come  up  first  among  the  spring 
plants?  Can  you  tell  how  old  they  are,  or  how 
many  years  they  have  been  growing  in  the  ground? 


Tcypics  for  Third  Grade.  251 

Let  the  children  bring-  in  different  specimens  and 
compare  them  together  in  the  class.  An  excursion 
should  be  made  with  the  children  for  half  an  hour 
or  more  with  trowels  or  with  spades.  It  will  be 
easy  to  collect  half  a  dozen  specimens  upon  one 
of  these  short  excursions  which  will  serve  for 
another  lesson  in  the  school  house.  A  second  ex- 
cursion along  the  same  line  will  be  a  first  trip  to 
the  woods  in  spring-time  to  dig-  up  spring-  beauties, 
blood  root,  Solomon's  seal,  and  other  plants  which 
show  an  underground  stem.  Contrast  with  these 
perennial  plants  those  which  come  from  seeds  like 
the  corn,  bean,  pea,  and  many  of  our  garden  plants. 

THE  MOLE. 

One  of  the  common  animals  for  study  in  the 
third  grade  is  the  common  mole  which  spoils  our 
lawns.  How  can  it  manage  to  live  under  ground 
and  be  comfortable?  Why  should  it  prefer  the 
dark,  damp  earth  to  the  freshness  and  light  of 
the  upper  world?  Catch  a  ground  mole  and,  tak- 
ing him  into  the  yard,  see  how  quickly,  when  set 
free,  he  works  his  way  into  the  earth.  How  does 
he  do  this?  What  organs  does  he  use?  Observe 
his  use  of  his  snout  and  fore  feet.  How  difficult 
it  is  to  pull  him  out  of  the  ground  when  once  he 
has  gotten  firm  hold.  Examine  his  legs.  How 
does  he  manage  to  dig  so  rapidly?  Note  the  dif- 
ference between  his  front  and  hind  legs  and  feet. 
Why  this  difference?     Do  his  front  legs  and  feet 


252  Special  Method  in  Science. 

stand  out  in  the  same  way  from  his  body  as  the 
squirrel's  and  cat's?  Why  are  they  different?  No- 
tice his  claws  and  itiuscles.  Why  are  his  front 
legs  so  short? 

How  does  he  manage  to  live  under  ground? 
What  does  he  eat?  Examine  the  teeth.  Put  him 
in  a  box  with  earth  and  see  if  he  will  eat  vegeta- 
bles or  fish  worms  and  grubs.  Can  he  see  dis- 
tinctly? Examine  his  eyes.  Why  are  his  eyes  so 
small  and  scarcely  noticeable?  Describe  his  house 
underground.  Good  accounts  of  these  with  dia- 
grams, may  be  found  in  several  of  the  books  and 
encyclopedias.  He  has  several  entrances  to  his 
house  which  offer  means  of  escape.  What  does 
he  do  in  the  winter  time  when  the  ground  is  frozen? 
Where  does  he  raise  his  young?  Do  you  think 
that  the  ground  mole  is  of  much  service  to  the 
gardener  or  is  he  rather  a  hurtful  animal  doing 
more  damage  than  good?  How  can  he  get  away 
from  his  enemies?  Who  are  his  enemies,  and  how 
can  they  capture  him?  Sometimes  at  night  he 
comes  above  the  surface  and  is  captured  by  owls 
that  pounce  down  upon  him.  Compare  the  ground 
mole  with  the  ground  squirrel  or  gopher.  Notice 
the  difference  in  their  teeth,  in  their  food,  and  in 
their  manner  of  life.  Compare  him  also  with  the 
rat  and  squirrel. 


Topics  for  Fourth  Grade.  253 

TOPICS  rOR  rOURTH  GRADE. 


FALLTERn. 
POND  LIFE  IN  THE  FALL. 

Drag"on  flies.    Giant  water  bug-s.    Mosquitoes. 

"Insect  Life."  Comstock.  Chap.  IV  on  "Pond  Life"  is 
exactU'  the  kind  of  a  treatment  desired  for  the  teacher. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Lange.     pp.  17-37. 

"Insect  Life."    Comstock.     131-136. 

"School  Zoology."     Burnet.     95-98. 

Bramford's  "Up  and  Down  the  Brooks." 

Consult  the  Appendix  to  Lang-e's  "Handbook  of  Nature 
Study'*  for  sugrgestions  in  regard  to  field  work. 

The  study  of  a  topic  like  pond  life  should  ex- 
tend throug-h  the  season.  It  furnishes  great  va- 
riety of  material,  as  water,  insects,  water  birds, 
water  plants,  trees,  and  fishes.  It  is  a  simple  il- 
lustration of  a  life  group  changing"  from  season  to 
season  and  yet  having  certain  strong  character- 
istics, different  from  other  g"roups. 

See  also  "Recreations  in  Botany."    Creevey. 
Chapter  IX.     "Aquatic  Plants."    Published  by  Harper 
Brothers. 

THE  BUTrERPRINT,  COCKLE-BURR,  MILK-WEED.  AND  OTHER 
PALL  WEEDS. 

Study  of  pods  and  scattering  of  seeds. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."  Lang^e.  pp.  195-199  and 
58-69. 

The  number  and  variety  of  seed-pods  found 
among  the  fall  weeds  are  of  much  interest.     Let 


254  Special  Method  in  Science. 

the  children  bring"  in  specimens.  On  excursions 
with  the  class  to  near  places  notice  the  abund- 
ance of  seeds  with  which  the  above  plants  are 
supplied  and  how  they  scatter  them. 

* 'Recreations  in  Botany."     Creevey. 

Chapter  XVIII.     "Seeds  and  Fruits." 

FALL   OBSERVATION   OF    PLANTS  AND   TREES  STUDIED  IN  THE 
SPRING. 

Wild  flowers,  maples,  and  birches,  g"rape  vine, 
apple  tree,  seedlings.  Continue  also  the  bird 
calendar.  Notice  the  changes  of  growth  in  trees 
and  large  plants  and  vines  that  have  taken  place 
during  the  summer  months. 

For  the  summer  months  consult 
Lang-e's  "Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Chapters  IV 
V,  and  VI.     pp  44-71. 

THE  FERNS. 

"Glimpses  of  the  Plant  W^orld."    Berg-en.     pp.  58-66. 
"Elementary  Biology."'     Boyer.     p.  140, 
"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."     Lange.     pp.  239-244. 
"Little  Flower  People."     Hale,     pp.  66-78. 
"Recreations  in  Botany."    Creevey.    Chapter  XII. 

Children  should  collect  and  replant  specimens 
obtained  from  their  excursions  to  woods.  Study 
stems  and  leaves  and  compare  with  the  tree-ferns 
of  the  hot-house  and  of  tropical  lands.  Observe 
modes  of  prox^agation.  Compare  with  the  com- 
pound leaves  of  locust,  sumac,  and  others. 


Topics  for  Fourth  Grade.  25  > 

THE  MORNING  GLORY. 

This  is  for  full  and  prolonged  examination. 
Compare,  also,  with  other  climbing  plants. 

••How  Plants  Grow."    Gray.     pp.  10-17. 

"A  Few  Familiar  Flowers.''    Morley.     pp.  1-104. 

''How  to  Study  Plants."    Wood.     pp.  182-188. 

Mrs.  Morley's  book  contains  half  a  dozen  top- 
ics on  plants  completely  worked  out  and  will  be 
of  great  aid  to  intermediate  teachers.  Take  the 
children  to  see  the  vines  and  flowers  and  supply 
plenty  of  material  for  observation.  It  is  easily 
obtained.  Notice  the  insects  that  frequent  the 
blossoms. 

THE  GOLDENROD. 

Stem,  root,  and  flowers.  A  forest  of  golden- 
Tod.  Insect  visitors.  Bees,  moths,  butterflies, 
and  beetles.     Tenants  in  and  upon  the  goldenrod. 

See  'Outdoor  Studies."  Needham.  pp.  29-46.  An  ex- 
cellent study. 

Review  in  this  study  the  compound  flowers  of 
the  previous  fall. 

"Recreations  Ib  Botany."    Creevey.     Chapter  VII. 

"Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools."  Wilson,    p.  28. 

THE  FOREST  IN  THE  PALL. 

The  oak 

The  hickory. 

The  walnut. 

The  maple. 

"Trees  of  the  Northern  U.  S."  Apgrar.    Chaps.  I  to  IV. 
"Familiar  Trees  and  Their  Leaves."    Matthews,     pp. 
143-171;  also,  pp.  219-237. 


256  Special  Method  in  Science. 

"A  Reader  in  Botany."    Newell,     pp.  72-83. 
"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Lange.     127-137. 
Review  the  blossoming  of  trees  in  spring*. 
"Stories  of  tiie  Trees."    Mrs.  Dyson. 

THE  OWL,  THE  HAWK,  AND  THE  EAQLE. 

"Birds  of  Village  and  Field."  Florence  A.  Merriam. 
pp.  287-294. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Lang-e.     pp.  268-273. 

"Bird  Life."    Chapman,     pp.  116-132. 

"Inmates  of  My  House  and  Garden."  Brightwen.  pp. 
75-82. 

"In  Birdland."    Keyser.     pp.  135-140. 

Apg-ar's  "Birds  of  the  U.  S."  for  general  reference  and 
a  manual  for  identification. 

The  birds  of  prey  are  striking-  examples  of 
adaptation  of  org-ans  to  use,  as  the  beak,  talons, 
eyes,  muscles,  structure,  and  feathers.  Even  the 
stuffed  specimens  help  g^reatly  to  appreciate  these 
points.  Recall  in  pioneer  histories  the  contact  of 
the  settlers  with  wild  birds. 

'  'A  Naturalist's  Rambles  About  Home. "  Abbott.  "Owls,  '* 
chapter  XXV. 

THE  OX.  AND  BUFFALO,  AND  DEER. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."  Lange.  pp.  101-109;  278- 
285. 

"Animal  Life  in  Sea  and  on  Land."  Cooper,  pp.  358-367. 

The  fuller  study  of  the  ox,  its  food,  teeth,  cud, 
stomach,  and  habits  in  the  field  should  be  made 
the  basis  of  a  grouping-  of  all  the  ruminants.  The 
study  of  the  buffalo  and  deer  must  be  mostly  from 
pictures,  descriptions,  and  stories  of  their  life  in 


Topics  fur  Fourth  Grade.  257 

nature.  But  with  a  g"ood  basis  of  experience  in 
the  cow  and  sheep  and  by  contrast  with  other 
animals  this  may  be  made  profitable  and  scien- 
tific. 

THE  BAT. 

"Longman's  Object  Lessons."     pp.  199-201. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Lange.     pp.  76-78. 

"Zoolog"ical  Sketches."  Oswald.  Chapter  V,  p.  114. 
Specimens  may  be  secured  for  study  in  almost 
any  locality.  The  striking  features  of  elongated 
and  webbed  wing^s  are  of  special  interest.  The 
combination  of  bird  and  mouse  is  at  once  noticed 
and  the  peculiar  adaptation  of  wings,  teeth,  claws, 
and  the  folding  of  the  parts  should  be  closely  ob- 
served. Compare,  also,  with  the  webbed  feet  of 
birds,  the  wings  of  flying  squirrels,  the  wings  of 
chickens  and  birds.    Notice  the  teeth  and  food. 

THE  BLACKBIRD.- (Continued.) 

The  collection,  migrations  of  blackbirds  in 
the  fall,  in  flocks.  Their  roosting  places;  their 
flight  into  the  fields  for  food  at  daybreak  and  re- 
turn  at  evening.  Their  final  departure  for  the 
south. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Lange.     pp.  29-32. 

"In  Birdland."    Keyser.     pp.  64-86. 

"Bird  Life."    Chapman,     pp.  48-61,  and  170-172. 

"Nature  Study  for  Elementary  Grades."  Wilson,  pp. 
190-193. 

"News  from  the  Birds."    Keyser.     pp.  138-149. 

"A  Naturalist's  Rambles  About  Home."  Abbott.  Chap- 
ter XIII. 

"Bird  Ways."    Miller,    pp.  93-109. 


258  Special  Method  in  Science. 

THE  COTTON  PLANT. 

Show  specimens  of  the  cotton  boll,  seeds  and 
fibre.  Cotton  clothing,  its  kinds  and  uses.  Com- 
pare it  with  woolen  clothing*. 

See  "A  Reader  in  Botany."     Newell,     pp.  12-23. 

"The  Plant  World."    Vincent,     pp.  198-200. 

"Lessons  on  Elementary  Science."  Salmon,   pp.  113-llt 


WINTER  TERM. 
HARDWOOD  TREES  IN  WINTER. 

"Trees  of  the  Northern  U.  S."     Apg-ar.     pp.  29-34. 

"A  Reader  in  Botany."    Newell,     pp.  72-83. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."     Lan^e.     pp.  127-137. 

"Stories  of  the  Trees."  Mrs.  Dyson.  Chapters  I,  II,  III, 
X,  and  XIII. 

"Familiar  Trees  and  Their  Leaves."  Mathews,  pp.  219- 
237. 

"The  Oak."    Ward. 

Notice  the  condition  of  trees  in  winter.  Prep- 
arations for  the  next  year.  Make  an  excursion 
to  the  woods  in  winter  to  identify  trees  by  bark^ 
trunk,  branching,  twigs,  and  location. 

COAL  AND  ITS  FORMATION. 

"Coal  and  Coal  Mines."    Homer  Green. 
"The  Story  of  a  Piece  of  Coal."     Martin. 
"First  Book  in  Geolog-y."     Shaler.     pp.  46-55. 
"Lessons  on  Elementary  Science."  Salmon,  pp.  136-138. 
"The  Fairy  Land  of  Science."   Buckley.    Lecture  VIIL 
pp.  171-192. 

"Town  Geolog-y."    King-sley.     Chap.  4.    pp.  117-160. 
The  Earth  and  Its  Story."    Heilprin.     pp.  226-230. 


Topics  for  Fourth  Grade.  259 

Bring"  in  specimens  of  fossil  leaves  and  plants 
embedded  in  the  coal.  Locate  the  place  of  the 
coal  measures  in  g"eological  history.  Describe  the 
process  of  coal  formation.  Connect  with  the  les- 
sons on  the  coal  mine  in  g-eography. 

FRESH  AIR  AND  VENTILATION. 

Let  this  be  treated  as  a  house  topic.     Use  the 
ventilation  of  the  scliool  room  as  an  illustration 
The  constituents  of  the  air,  oxyg^en,  nitrogen,  and 
carbonic  acid. 

"Lessons  on  Elementarj'  Science  "    Salmon.     138-140. 
"Applied  rhysiolog-y."'    Overton,     pp.  92-103. 

The  hyg-iene  of  fresh  air. 

The  lungs  and  fresh  air.  Changes  in  the  lungs 
in  breathing. 

See  Blaisdell's  "How  to  Keep  Well."    Chapter  VIII. 

THE  EVERGREEN  FOREST. 

Scotch  pine,  hemlock,  arbor  vitae,  southern 
pine,  red  wood,  forests  of  the  north  and  south. 

See  "Stories  of  the  Trees.*  Mrs.  Dyson.  Chapters 
XX-XXI. 

"The  White  Pine."  Pindert  &  Graves.  A  small  book 
published  by  the  Century  Co. 

"Recreations  in  Botany."    Creevey.    Chapter  X. 

Examine  the  clusters  of  evergreens  in  the 
neighborhood.  Notice  the  withering  of  the  lower 
limbs. 

The  rookeries  for  crows  and  winter  birds. 

Describe  the  northern  pineries  and  contrast 
with  hard  wood  forests. 


260  Special  Method  in  Science. 

WATER. 

Solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous  forms.  Evaporation. 
Water  as  a  solvent.  Vapor,  steam.  Life  in  water. 
Springs  and  under-ground  water. 

"One  Hundred  Lessons  in  Nature  Study."  Payne,  pp. 
106-8. 

"The  Fairy  Land  of  Science."  Buckley.  Lecture  IV. 
pp.  72-98. 

"The  Great  World's  Farm."  Gaye.  Chapter  VIII.  pp. 
90-104.     Seeley  &  Co. 

"The  World  of  Matter."  Ballard.  Chapters  I-IV.  D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co. 

Pure  water  for  drinking.  Surface  contamina- 
tions. How  pure  water  is  obtained.  Filtering. 
Distilling. 

IRON. 

Ore.  Qualities  of  pure  iron.  Kinds  of  iron. 
Steel.     Qualities  of  steel.     Collect  specimens. 

"Nature  Study."     Payne,     pp.  126-7. 
"The  World  of  Matter."  Ballard.   Chapter  XVIIL    pp. 
165-170. 

"The  Earth  and  its  Story."    Heilprin.     pp.  215-220. 

Heat  iron  and  show  its  qualities. 

Compare  with  lead  already  studied-. 

Rusting  of  iron. 

Various  uses  of  iron. 

Call  to  mind  the  blast  furnace  from  the  geog- 
raphy studies  and  the  manner  of  making  pig  iron, 
its  uses,  etc. 


Topics  for  Fourth  Grade.  261 

KIN05  OF  ROCKS. 

Pebbles,  fossils,  shells. 

"Guides  for  Science  Teaching^."  Hyatt.  No.  XII.  and 
No.  I. 

"Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools."  Wilson,  pp. 
177-183. 

Bring  in  specimens  of  lime  stone,  sand  stone, 
pebbles,  flint,  granite,  marble,  slate,  and  tell 
where  they  come  from. 

Notice  the  action  of  the  weather  upon  lime 
stones,  marbles,  and  other  building  stone. 

See,  also,  "Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools."  Wil- 
son,    pp.  254-256. 

THE  BLUE  JAY. 

The  blue  jay  is  one  of  the  most  common  and 
interesting  of  our  winter  birds  and  can  be  watched, 
or  at  least  occasionally  observed  in  winter. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Lange.     pp.  265-6. 
"Inmates  of  my  House  and  Garden,"  by  Brightwen.   pp. 
105-113. 

"Birds  Throug-h  an  Opera  Glass."    Merriam.    pp.  69-75 

THERMOMETER  AND  BAROMETER. 

Work  upon  thermometers  and  barometers* 
should  be  illustrated  by  experiment.  Children 
should  learn  to  read  understandingly  these  in- 
struments. This  topic  is  closely  connected  with 
the  topic  of  temperature,  heat,  and  cold. 

"Elementary  Meteorology."    Waldo,     pp.  31-42. 

"Longman's  Object  Lessons."    Salmon,     pp.  174-178. 


262  Special  Method  in  Science. 

HYACINTH.  LATE  WINTER. 

See  Marg-aret  Morley's  "A  Few  Familiar 
Flowers. "  This  is  a  very  suitable  study  for  late 
winter.     Get  the  bulb's. 

"Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools."  Wilson,  pp. 
96-98. 

Compare  with  the  onion  and  tulip. 
Keep  specimens  g-rowing-  in  the  school  windows 
and  later  in  spring  transplant  to  school  p^arden. 

SPONGES. 

Specimens  of  different  kinds  of  spong-es  should 
be  examined  in  the  class,  and  pictures,  descrip- 
tions of  sponge  fisheries  should  be  examined. 

"Guide  for  Science  Teaching-."    Hyatt,     No.  III. 
''Animal  Life  in  Sea  and  on  Land."    Cooper,     pp.  1-11, 
"Living  Creatures  of  Water,  Land,  and  Air."  Monteith. 
pp.  11-17. 

THE  MUSKRAT  AND  BEAVER. 

Muskrat  houses.  Examine  the  muskrat  to  see 
if  he  is  fitted  for  life  in  the  water.  Notice  feet 
and  fur,  teeth  and  food.  How  is  he  caught  by 
trappers?  Feel  of  the  pelt  and  see  if  it  is  valu- 
able as  fur. 

Describe  the  home  and  habits  of  the  beaver. 
Notice  also  the  teeth  and  their  use  as  compared 
with  the  squirrel,  rabbit,  rat,  mouse. 

"Animal  Life  in  Sea  and  on  Land."  Cooper,  pp.  387-390 
"Lessons  on  Elementary  Science."  Salmon,   pp.  104-107. 
"A  Naturalist's  Rambles  About  Home."  Abbott.  Chap- 
ter X 


Topics  for  Fourth  Grade.  263 

SPRING  TERH. 
WILD  DUCK  AND  WILD  GOOSE. 

The  study  of  the  wild  duck  and  the  wild  ^oose 
as  types  of  water  birds  is  one  of  the  best  chances 
for  noticing  the  adaptation  of  organs  to  a  peculiar 
mode  of  lite.  The  use  of  the  feathers  and  down, 
the  webbed  feet,  flat  bill,  the  shape  of  the  body, 
the  muscles,  and  bony  structures  at  every  point 
show  marvelous  adaptation.  The  contrast  with 
other  kinds  of  birds,  as  the  perchers  and  warblers, 
will  bring  out  more  plainly  this  peculiar  fitness 
for  water  life. 

"Bird  Life."    Chapman,     pp.  92-94. 

WOOD-FLOWERS  IN  SPRING. 
THE  SPRING  BEAUTY. 

"How  to  Study  Plants."  Wood.  pp.  39-44,  60-64,  229-232, 
246-249. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Lang-e.     p.  153. 
"Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools."    pp.  229-235. 

Excursions  to  the  woods  for  specimens  of 
spring-  beauty,  jack-in-the-pulpit,  bloodroot,  he- 
patica,  violets,  Solomon's  seal,  etc.,  should  be 
made.  If  taken  up  with  the  dirt,  the  roots  and 
tubers  can  be  observed  or  they  may  be  trans- 
planted into  the  school  garden. 

5PRING  BIRDS. 

Catbird,  brown  thrush,  the  meadow-lark  and 
the  quail,  and  the  bobolink. 


264  Special  Method  in  Science. 

Observe  the  birds  along-  the  hedg-es  and  in  the 
meadows,  their  song",  colors,  nests. 

"Birds  Throug-h  an  Opera  Glass."     Merriam.    pp.  40-42. 
"Birds  of  Villag-e  and  Field."    Merriam.     p.  37. 

INSECT  LIFE  IN  THE  ORCHARD. 

The  orchard  furnishes  a  g-ood  life  g^roup  for 
study  in  the  spring-time.  Notice  the  insects  upon 
grass  and  trees.  Also  the  birds.  The  insects 
visiting-  the  blossoms. 

Observe  the  eg-g-s  and  larvae  of  one  of  the  ap- 
ple tree  moths  as  it  develops.  Compare  it  with 
the  butterfly. 

An  excellent  series  of  studies  upon  orchard 
insects  is  given  in: 

"Insect  Life,"  by  Comstock.     Chapter  VI.     pp.  166-185. 

The  following  chapter  treats  of  forest  life  in 
a  similar  way. 

nusHROons. 

"Glimpses  of  the  Plant  World."    Bergen.    Chapter  IV. 
"Hand  Book  of  Nature  Study."    Lange.     pp.  248-250. 

Collect  specimens  and  notice  their  structure. 
Observe  where  they  grow  and  when  they  spring 
up.  Have  they  roots?  Do  they  come  from  seeds? 
Observe  also  the  colors,  sizes,  and  length  of  life. 
Learn  to  distinguish  between  the  poisonous  and 
edible  mushrooms. 


Topics  for  Fourth  Grade.  265 

THE   BUTTERFLY. 

"Frail  Children  of  the  Air."    Samuel  Hubbard  Scudder. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Lange.     pp.  199-204. 

"Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoology."  Needham.  pp.  36- 
42  and  86-93. 

"Insect  Life."    Comstock.     pp.  245-254.  , 

"Living  Creatures  in  Water,  Land,  and  Air.  Monteith. 
pp.  108-112. 

"Boys  and  Girls  in  Biology."    Stevenson,     pp.  lo4-186. 

"School  Zoology."    Burnet,     pp.  101-106. 

Scudder's  "The  Milkweed  Butterfly."  Henry  Holt  & 
Co.    Whole  book. 

Study  the  life  history  of  one  or  two  butterflieg. 
Make  collections.  Work  out  the  chief  stages  of 
the  metamorphosis.  Compare  with  grasshopper, 
mosquito,  dragonfly,  and  other  insects  previously 
studied. 

CLOUDS  AND  RAIN. 

"Elementary  Meteorology."  Wald6.  pp.  118-124  and 
142-146. 

"Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools."  Wilson,  pp. 
153-155. 

^'Lessons  on  Elementary  Science."  Salmon,  pp.  141-142- 

"Elementary  Lessons  in  Physical  Geog^raphy."  Geikie. 
Chapter  II.     pp.  38-83. 

"The  Story  of  the  Atmosphere."  Douglas  Archibald. 
Chapters  VII  and  VIII.     pp.  108-24. 

"The  Ocean  of  Air."    Giberne.     Part  III.     pp.  155-208. 

Study  causes  of  dew,  clouds,  rain,  evaporation, 
and  condensation. 

See  also  "Elementary  Lessoi^s  in  Physical  Geography." 
Geikie.    Lesson  X.    pp.  64-102. 


266  Special  Method  in  Science. 

TOBACCO. 

The  tobacco  plant. 

The  use  of  tobacco  and  its  evil  effects,  espe- 
cially upon  the  young*.     Nicotine. 

History  of  the  use  of  tobacco. 
"Applied  Physiolog-y."     Overton,     pp.  44-48. 
"Lesson  on  Elementary  Science."   Salmon,   pp.  124-125. 

Connect  with  the  g^eography  lessons  on  tobacco. 

AN  AQUARIUM  AND  FISHE5— SUN  FISH,  PERCH,  BASS,  ETC. 

How  to  keep  an  aquarium. 

"Nature  Studies  for  Elementary  Schools."  Wilson,  pp. 
116-121. 

Let  the  children  observe  and  find  out  how  to 
take  care  of  fishes,  food,  kind  of  water,  organs, 
as  fins,  g'ills,  and  eyes.  Movements  of  the  fish  in 
water.     Their  egg's  and  young. 

"Elementary  Biolog-y."     Boyer.     p.  53-68. 

"Long-man's  "Object  Lessons,"    pp.  204-5. 

"Handbook  of  Nature  Study."    Lange.     295-298. 

"Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoolog-y."  Needham.  pp.  160- 
178. 

"School  Zoology."    Burnet.     136-144. 

"Nature  Study."    Payne,     pp.  81-85. 

The  following-  list  for  third  and  fourth  grades 
consists  of  larger  and  more  expensive  books  than 
those  given  in  the  introduction  to  the  third  grade: 
but  they  are  excellent  books  for  the  teacher  and 
for  teachers'  libraries. 

"Insect  Life."  An  introduction  to  nature  study,  by  John 
Henry  Comstock.     D.  Appleton  &,  Co. 


Topics  for  Fourth  Grade.  2G7 

"Birds  of  Villagfe  and  Field."  A  book  for  beginners,  by 
Florence  A.  Merriam.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

"In  Birdland."     Keyser.     A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co. 

"Bird  Life."  A  guide  to  the  study  of  our  common  birds, 
by  Frank  M.  Chapman.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

"Familiar  Trees  and  Their  Leaves."  F.  Schuyler  Mat- 
thews.  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

"The  Ocean  of  Air."  Agnes  Giberne.  Educational 
Publishing  Co. 

"Frail  Children  of  the  Air."  Samuel  Hubbard  Scudder. 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

"Butterflies."  Their  structure,  changes,  and  life  his- 
tories, by  Samuel  H.  Scudder.     Henry  Holt  &  Co. 

"Inmates  of  My  House  &  Garden."  Mrs.  Brightwen. 
The  Macmillan  Co. 

"Romance  of  the  Insect  World,"  L.  N.  Badenoch.  The 
Macmillan  Co. 

"News  From  the  Birds."     Keyser.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

"Animal  life  in  the  Sea  and  on  the  Land."  Cooper. 
American  Book  Co. 

"Recreations  in  Botany."  C.Creevey.  Harper  Brothers. 

"The  Stories  of  the  Trees."  Mrs.  Dyson.  Thomas  Nel- 
son &  Sons. 

"The  Oak."    Ward.     D.  Appleton  «&  Co. 

"The  Fairy-Land  of  Science."  Buckley.  D.  Appleton 
&Co. 

"A  Naturalist's  Rambles  About  Home."  Abbott.  D.  Ap- 
pleton &  Co. 

"Elementary  Biology."    Boyer.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Most  of  the  publishing  companies  have  offices  in  Chi- 
cago, except  Thomas  •  Nelson  &  Sons,  N.  Y.;  Harper 
Brothers,  N.  Y.:  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  N.  Y.  Any  of 
these  books  can  be  ordered  from  The  Public  School  Pub- 
lishing Company,  Bloomiogton,  111. 


flDcflDurr^'s  BooF^s  for  tTeacbers. 

¥¥¥ 
McMurry*s  General  flethod. 

Is  a  book  of  224  pages,  neatly  bound  in  cloth.  It  discusses,  In  a  clear  and 
Interesting  manner,  the  general  principles  of  education  and  instruction.  Dr. 
Charles  A.  McMurry  should  be  classed  among  the  American  students  of  Her- 
bart;  he  studied  the  system  of  that  great  educator  in  Germany,  after  an  ex^ 
perience  in  the  schools  of  America  that  made  him  familiar  with  their  needs, 
and  with  the  characteristics  of  American  thought.  The  price  of  the  new  edi- 
tion is  75  cents. 

The  Method  of  the  Recitation. 

By  Dr.  Chas.  A.  McMurry  and  Dr.  Frank  M.  McMurry. 

This  follows  the  General  Method  as  a  sequel.  It  is  planned  to  show  the 
working  out  in  the  class  recitation  of  the  principles  discussed  in  the  General 
Method.  After  a  short  introduction,  a  series  of  class  lessons  in  different  studies 
is  given  in  full  as  a  basis  for  a  practical  discussion  of  recitation  work. 

It  is  a  volume  of  319  pages,  bound  in  full  cloth.     Price,  $i.oo. 

Special  Method  in  Reading:. 

This  book  of  137  pages,  by  Dr.  Charles  A.  McMurry,  treats  of  the  subject 
of  Reading  in  all  the  grades  below  the  High  School. 
In  full  cloth,  price,  40  cents. 

Special  Method  in  Literature  and  History. 

In  this  little  book  of  114  pages.  Dr.  McMurry  proceeds  to  the  application  of 
the  principles  developed  in  the  General  Method,  to  the  teaching  of  Literature 
and  History  in  the  eight  grades  of  the  grammar  school  course.  For  the 
three  lower  grades,  he  treats  of  the  Fairy  Stories,  Myths,  Robinson  Crusoe,  and 
similar  literature.  For  fourth  and  fifth  grades,  he  develops  the  method  of 
using  Pioneer  History  Stories;  and  then  he  treats  of  the  teaching  of  history  in 
each  of  the  three  higher  grades.    Bound  in  cloth,  price,  35  cents. 

Special  Method  in  Geography. 

Dr.  McMurry's  theory  of  the  teaching  of  Geography  is  that  pupils  must 
first  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  some  geographical  topics  which  mav 
stand  as  "type-studies,"  to  be  a  key  for  subsequent  acquisitions.  Hence,  he  ex- 
plains pretty  fully  the  study  of  home  geography,  plans  of  excursions,  etc. 
The  closing  chapter  presents  the  method  of  class-room  work. 

Revised  edition,  202  pages,  full  cloth,  50  cents 

Special  Method  in  Science  in  the  Lower  Grades. 

By  Dr.  Chas.  A.  McMurry. 

This  is  a  book  of  267  pages,  bound  in  full  cloth.  The  first  sixty- five  pages 
are  devoted  to  a  presentation  of  the  aims  of  science  teaching  in  the  grades,  and 
the  method  to  be  pursued.  Following  this  are  full  instructions  to  teachers  how 
to  prepare  themselves  for  teaching  science,  and  a  list  of  the  books  that  will  be 
most  helpful  to  them.  Then  follow  124  pages  of  Illustrative  Lessons  in  which 
the  method  of  teaching  several  of  the  domestic  animals  and  some  trees,  plants, 
insects,  birds,  and  animals,  is  carefully  worked  out  for  the  first  four  grades, 
by  Mrs.  Lida  B.  McMurry,  who  has  great  skill  in  teaching  these  subjects  to 
children. 

Price,  50  cents,  in  full  cloth  binding. 

Course  of  Study  in  the  Ei^ht  Grades. 

In  this  book  of  153  pages.  Dr.  Charles  A.  McMurry  presents  an  outline  for 
each  of  the  eight  grades,  based  upon  what  is  actually  done  in  the  Training 
Schools  of  the  Illinois  Normal  University.  This  is  a  course  of  study  arranged 
80  as  to  realize  in  the  actual  work  of  the  school  the  theory  of  the  correlation  of 
the  common  school  branches  as  set  forth  in  the  educational  writings  of  Herbart. 

In  flexible  covers,  40  cents;  price,  in  full  cloth,  50  cents. 

Liberal  discounts  to  the  trade  and  on  orders  for  teacaers'  classes  for  all 
books.  Send  for  catalog  of  other  books  for  teachers,  and  books  for  children. 

PUBLIC-SCHEOOL  PUBLISHING  COMPANY,- 

Blooxnington,  Illinois. 


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